Prior to his presidency, James Madison (term: 1801-1809) contributed several articles promoting the new American government and explaining the nuances of our landmark Constitution. These articles are known as the Federalist Papers. 

Federalist #10 is a very important piece of writing. In it, Madison explains that factions have the ability to tear apart the country due to the proverbial line in the sand that a faction creates. Factions are known today as interest groups.

A strong enough faction with a large enough majority could take on powers that would challenge the government’s functions and erode civil rights and liberties of the minority. Whether it is over a religious principle, supporting leaders, or government policy, factions create a serious division between the people on either side of the argument. James Madison accepts that factions will exist, so his approach to balancing them is through governmental regulations (which would, ideally, protect the citizens from a faction becoming tyrannical).

In the first line of the excerpt above, note what Madison describes as the root cause for factions to rise: “the nature of man”.

Grover Cleveland (terms: 1885-1889; 1893-1897) was elected to two non-consecutive terms. In the 1889 election, he actually won the popular vote and lost the election. This has happened only a handful of times in Presidential elections.

William McKinley (term: 1897-1901) annexed Hawaii in 1898 after a push-back from Democrats and some Republicans. This expanded America’s reach in the Pacific (along with Spain handing over the Philippines to the United States). The push-back McKinley received in Congress meant that Hawaii would not become a state immediately. It would be decades until President Eisenhower made Hawaii America’s 50^th state.

Theodore Roosevelt (term: 1901-1910) was able to accomplish a great deal during his eight years in office. He is known as a nature-lover, essentially adding an adventurer mystique to his character. Roosevelt set up national parks, became the first sitting president to visit a foreign country, and helped to build the Panama Canal. He also clamped restrictions onto monopolies, which gained the nickname the “Trust Buster.”

Theodore Roosevelt did not enact the draft to bolster the military.

Woodrow Wilson (term: 1913-1921) outlined the ways to achieve international peace, which is titled the Fourteen Points. By the time the United States finally began fighting in World War I, the whole world was struggling to grasp the size, scope, and technological warfare involved in this massive battle.

Woodrow Wilson believed that the League of Nations was one of the answers to achieving world peace. This organization could act as sort of international police force, mediation court, and think-tank for peace.

Unfortunately, not only did the United States not join, but the organization failed to have any kind of power – due in part to the United States non-involvement.

Warren Harding (term: 1921-1923) and his administration are often labeled as a corrupt Presidency, especially because of the Teapot Dome scandal. This is regarded as the first modern example of publicly exposed corruption among oil companies. The scandal also exposed the backroom dealings where the Harding administration gave contracts to specific companies they were close with, leaving an indelible smudge on Harding’s reputation. Another term for the backroom dealings described here is crony capitalism.

Richard Nixon (term: 1969-1974) is known for the Watergate scandal, but he had many successes as President. He was often excellent with foreign affairs, and he was able to make China somewhat of an ally (and at the least not an enemy) during the Cold War. This landmark visit eventually opened up diplomatic relations between the United States and China in the late 1970s. The visit was preceded by several maneuvers from both China and the United States to ease tensions and improve relations.

George Bush Sr. (term: 1989-1993)  was able to keep Russia and China at bay during Persian Gulf War, even though both are often opposed to or critical of international U.S. military interventions. More than that, he created a strong alliance of Middle Eastern and European powers– led by a massive wave of US troops. Israel did not get directly involved, which some interpreted as a strategic play by George Bush Sr., so that the Middle Eastern countries did not have to contradict their own identities to end the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.

Bill Clinton (term: 1993 – 2000): and his staff (notably his Assistant Secretary of State Richard Holbrooke) led the negotiations to end the Bosnian War with the Dayton Peace Accords. This was a deeply complex and problematic time in this region of the world. The Bosnian War was part of the Yugoslav Wars  that went on for years and had multiple causes. 

President Clinton sent over 20,000 U.S. troops in conjunction with NATO forces to ensure that war did not break out again, though much of the fighting continued in and around the region.

Franklin Roosevelt (term: 1933-1945) broke the tradition of U.S. Presidents stepping down after two terms in office.  He ran for unprecedented third and fourth terms– this alone demonstrates the robust popularity he had among voters. The 22^nd Amendment was passed a few years after he died in office, making Roosevelt the only President to ever serve three consecutive terms.