James Madison (1809-1817) saw the uneven allocation of property as a major issue. This was the most apparent separation of groups in society – Madison saw those with property taking one side in political affairs and those without property supporting the opposite side. With the argument simplified to a concept of haves and have-nots, Madison argues that two massive political interest groups could arise. 

The factions, Madison’s term for interest groups, in this case share similar struggles and political roadblocks because they are diametrically opposed in this two-sided issue. 

In other words, those with property will vote against those without property; those lacking property will vote against property owners. 

Madison’s overarching concern with all of this is that if one of these factions becomes a large enough majority, the democracy will become more like a monarchy. This would feel like a return to the system they ended with the Revolutionary War, and a corrupting or ruining of the Constitution.

Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) was President during a period of dual federalism in America. The states expected the federal government to abstain from their affairs, and tensions between the North and the South were beginning to boil while the Federal government let the states operate with a great deal of autonomy.

At one point, President Jackson passed a bill that gave some economic protection to employers in the North and his Vice President from South Carolina resigned over it.

James Polk (term: 1845-1849) was an expansionist, who made several moves that could have resulted in wars on multiple fronts. The Mexican War provided interests to both the North and South, and resulted in much of the Southwest being annexed by America.

His aggressive land accumulations alone demonstrated Polk's willingness to use executive power decisively.

Millard Fillmore (term: 1850-1853) managed to postpone the Civil War and the South’s secession with the Compromise of 1850, but this did not solve the issues at hand. He signed a bill into law that widened the gap between the North and South to a critical point. This law, known as the Fugitive Slave Act, was meant to appease the South while California was admitted to the Union as a state that bans slavery, or a “free” state.

The North was enraged by the Fugitive Slave Act, which added to a growing wave of momentum known as the abolitionist movement.

This was not the point in history in which women began receiving voting rights, though the women’s rights movement was gaining steam like the abolitionists.

Abraham Lincoln (term: 1861-1865) is one of the most popular Presidents in American History. During wartime, Presidents have used executive privilege to limit rights or exert far-reaching power. 

During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln deemed it necessary to restrict habeas corpus, a Latin term that essentially means the right to a fair trial. Lincoln argued that due process was illegal to limit except when the nation was on the brink of collapse – like during the American Civil War.

Ulysses Grant did not have political experience before he won the Presidency. In order to deal with hectic state the nation was in, he took up the program for the South that Abraham Lincoln had promoted - rehabilitation. 

Grant did not want to punish the South while the country was on the mend during the post-war Reconstruction period.

Chester Arthur (term: 1881-1885) saw the Brooklyn Bridge built during his term. The bridge was a credit to American engineering and ingenuity then and still represents a point of architectural pride. Chester Arthur had the moral courage to veto the Chinese Exclusion Act, even though it upset some groups of American businesses. 

The Statue of Liberty was gifted to America from France during Chester Arthur’s term, and the Geneva Conventions included the signature of the United States. The Geneva Conventions are revolutionary pieces of humanitarian legislation in international politics. Chester Arthur oversaw and had several accomplishments for the U.S. that still have an impact today.

Alaska did not become a state under Chester Arthur, but there was legislation drafted to bring Alaska closer to statehood during President Arthur’s term.

Herbert Hoover (term: 1929-1933) had one of the most unfortunate starts to a Presidency when the Great Depression hit the same year he was inaugurated. The state of the economy can determine a President’s ability to be reelected at times (while it is never that simple, it can be a massive factor in measuring a President’s success). The Great Depression not only crushed the US economy, but also the global economy and led to Franklin Roosevelt exerting serious Presidential power when he unleashed the New Deal.

Dwight Eisenhower (term: 1953-1961) officially saw Hawaii became the 50th state on August 21, 1959. This led to the modern American flag we know now. Hawaii was annexed by America in 1898 in part because of geostrategy - the base at Pearl Harbor provided several advantages during the Spanish-American War.

John Kennedy (term: 1961-1963) was in office during the Cuban Missile Crisis. America and the Soviet Union were bitter enemies during the Cold War and each found allies throughout the world. The Soviet Union deployed missiles to Cuba, a Communist ally, after America had failed to topple the Castro government during the Bay of Pigs invasion. This led to the most direct conflict of the Cold War, and the possibility of war was very very real.

Ultimately, negotiations settled the situation peacefully.