Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

According to theory 2, what is the conjugate base of  for the following reaction?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

What statement would theory 3 consider most correct?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory would not support the classification of an acid-base reaction occuring between pure compounds that are not dissolved in solutions?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

According to theory 1, how would a scientist determine whether a substance was an acid or not?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory supports this statement: “The transfer of protons is a necessary part of an acid-base reaction."

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Suppose theory 2 is proven correct and theories 1 and 3 are debunked. What would be the result of this?

The Environmental Protection Agency compiled the following information about heavy metals in drinking water. Heavy metals are toxic, and thus must be monitored very closely. All amounts are given in parts per billion (ppb), a common measurement of concentration for trace contaminants. Figure 1 shows total heavy metal contamination in each city as a makeup of various percentages of specific contaminants. Figure 2 shows specific amounts of contaminants (with the same color coding) in ppb as well as total contamination level in ppb.

Figure 1

Figure 2

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the concentration of antimony to 6ppb. Which city is most likely in violation of this statute?

Both gases and liquids are considered to be fluids that have individual molecules that move around with kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy, defined as the energy related to motion, takes three forms: translational energy that occurs as a molecule moves from position A to position B, rotational energy that occurs as a molecule spins around an imaginary axis at its center of mass, and vibrational energy that occurs as individual atoms in a molecular bond move towards and away from each other. Usually, molecules possess varying combinations of kinetic energy forms. In contrast, potential energy is defined as stored energy that could be released to become kinetic energy. The total energy of a molecule is fixed, meaning that a molecule has some combination of kinetic and potential energies.

Varying amount of kinetic and potential energies define how molecules in a fluid interact with each other. For example, when the kinetic energy of a molecule is high (greater than 1000J), it can no longer interact with neighboring molecules strongly enough to remain a liquid. However, if the potential energies are too high (greater than 1000 J), molecules cannot escape a liquid to become a gas. If the kinetic energy is high and the potential energy is low, molecules tend to become a gas and can be modeled by an equation known as the Ideal Gas Law:

Where P is the pressure of a gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of a gas, R is a constant, and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.

The Ideal Gas Law perfectly applies to particles with no mass, no intermolecular interactions, and no true volume. However, real molecules do not adhere perfectly to the Ideal Gas Law.

In an oxygen molecule, O₂, the two oxygen atoms oscillate about a fixed central point. Which form of kinetic energy is best described here?

Both gases and liquids are considered to be fluids that have individual molecules that move around with kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy, defined as the energy related to motion, takes three forms: translational energy that occurs as a molecule moves from position A to position B, rotational energy that occurs as a molecule spins around an imaginary axis at its center of mass, and vibrational energy that occurs as individual atoms in a molecular bond move towards and away from each other. Usually, molecules possess varying combinations of kinetic energy forms. In contrast, potential energy is defined as stored energy that could be released to become kinetic energy. The total energy of a molecule is fixed, meaning that a molecule has some combination of kinetic and potential energies.

Varying amount of kinetic and potential energies define how molecules in a fluid interact with each other. For example, when the kinetic energy of a molecule is high (greater than 1000J), it can no longer interact with neighboring molecules strongly enough to remain a liquid. However, if the potential energies are too high (greater than 1000 J), molecules cannot escape a liquid to become a gas. If the kinetic energy is high and the potential energy is low, molecules tend to become a gas and can be modeled by an equation known as the Ideal Gas Law:

Where P is the pressure of a gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of a gas, R is a constant, and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.

The Ideal Gas Law perfectly applies to particles with no mass, no intermolecular interactions, and no true volume. However, real molecules do not adhere perfectly to the Ideal Gas Law.

An oxygen molecule moving from the left side of a chamber to the right would display what type(s) of kinetic energy?

Both gases and liquids are considered to be fluids that have individual molecules that move around with kinetic and potential energy. Kinetic energy, defined as the energy related to motion, takes three forms: translational energy that occurs as a molecule moves from position A to position B, rotational energy that occurs as a molecule spins around an imaginary axis at its center of mass, and vibrational energy that occurs as individual atoms in a molecular bond move towards and away from each other. Usually, molecules possess varying combinations of kinetic energy forms. In contrast, potential energy is defined as stored energy that could be released to become kinetic energy. The total energy of a molecule is fixed, meaning that a molecule has some combination of kinetic and potential energies.

Varying amount of kinetic and potential energies define how molecules in a fluid interact with each other. For example, when the kinetic energy of a molecule is high (greater than 1000J), it can no longer interact with neighboring molecules strongly enough to remain a liquid. However, if the potential energies are too high (greater than 1000 J), molecules cannot escape a liquid to become a gas. If the kinetic energy is high and the potential energy is low, molecules tend to become a gas and can be modeled by an equation known as the Ideal Gas Law:

Where P is the pressure of a gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles of a gas, R is a constant, and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.

The Ideal Gas Law perfectly applies to particles with no mass, no intermolecular interactions, and no true volume. However, real molecules do not adhere perfectly to the Ideal Gas Law.

The relationship between total energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy could best be described as: