When describing their behavior, gases are typically treated as "ideal gases" in what is known as the ideal gas law. Two science students describe the ideal gas law in their own terms:

Student 1: The ideal gas law is based on the assumptions that a gas consists of a large number of molecules and that gas molecules take up negligible space in a gas due to their minuscule size in comparison to the space between each gas molecule. Also important is the assumption that all of the forces acting on gas molecules are from collisions with other gas molecules or a container and not from anything else. According to the ideal gas law, all gases behave the same so long as those assumptions hold true. Therefore, if you measure the volume of helium gas at a certain temperature and pressure, an equivalent amount of radon gas (a much heavier gas) at the same conditions will have the same volume.

Student 2: The ideal gas law's primary assumption is that a gas consists of a very large number of particles. For example, even within a single bacteria there can be billions of gas molecules despite the bacteria's very small size. Therefore, in a room full of gas, there are so many particles that their random behavior is, on average, uniform. There are exceptions to the ideal gas law and those are gases with very high inter-molecular forces of attraction (IMFAs). A gas with high IMFA will behave very differently than a gas with a low IMFA. As one could imagine, because a gas with a high IMFA will have molecules that tend to attract each other, that gas will display a lower volume than that which would be predicted by the ideal gas law.

Assuming that both students' statements are correct in describing the ideal gas law, how would we then describe the effects of molecule size and IMFAs on a gas's volume?

When describing their behavior, gases are typically treated as "ideal gases" in what is known as the ideal gas law. Two science students describe the ideal gas law in their own terms:

Student 1: The ideal gas law is based on the assumptions that a gas consists of a large number of molecules and that gas molecules take up negligible space in a gas due to their minuscule size in comparison to the space between each gas molecule. Also important is the assumption that all of the forces acting on gas molecules are from collisions with other gas molecules or a container and not from anything else. According to the ideal gas law, all gases behave the same so long as those assumptions hold true. Therefore, if you measure the volume of helium gas at a certain temperature and pressure, an equivalent amount of radon gas (a much heavier gas) at the same conditions will have the same volume.

Student 2: The ideal gas law's primary assumption is that a gas consists of a very large number of particles. For example, even within a single bacteria there can be billions of gas molecules despite the bacteria's very small size. Therefore, in a room full of gas, there are so many particles that their random behavior is, on average, uniform. There are exceptions to the ideal gas law and those are gases with very high inter-molecular forces of attraction (IMFAs). A gas with high IMFA will behave very differently than a gas with a low IMFA. As one could imagine, because a gas with a high IMFA will have molecules that tend to attract each other, that gas will display a lower volume than that which would be predicted by the ideal gas law.

An experiment was carried out that measured the volumes of two very small quantities of gases, hydrogen and tetrachloromethane. Both gases have a dipole moment of zero, meaning they do not exhibit intermolecular forces of attraction. Hydrogen is the lightest known gas, while tetrachloromethane is much heavier and therefore has much larger molecules.

The experiment yielded the following result: the same number of hydrogen molecules occupied a slightly different volume than an equivalent quantity of tetrachloromethane. This remained true only for small quantities of both gases.

What does this experimental data mean with regard to the opinions of the two students above?

Enzymes (large molecules) serve to catalyze, or speed up, chemical reactions in the human body. This process of catalysis begins with the binding of a substrate (the reactant) to the active site of an enzyme. This active site is simply the portion of the enzyme that interacts with the substrate. Following the binding event, products separate from the enzyme active site, at which point the enzyme is prepared to undergo another reaction cycle. Two scientists offer conflicting views on the nature of the enzyme-substrate interaction.

Scientist 1

The enzyme-substrate interaction can be modeled with a Lock and Key paradigm. In this model, the enzyme represents a lock and the substrate represents a key. Only the substrate of proper size and shape will fit into a particular enzyme's active site and catalyze the reaction. The enzyme-substrate complex, the intermediate of this reaction, is stabilized mostly by strong ionic and hydrogen bonds. Following the formation of this intermediate, the enzyme changes the substrate in some way, leading to formation of a product, which subsequently dissociates from the enzyme.

Scientist 2

The shapes of substrate and enzyme are not exactly complementary. When it binds to the enzyme, the substrate induces the active site to alter its shape in order to enhance the fit. Thus, at first the interaction between substrate and enzyme is weak, but subsequent changes in the active site lead to stronger binding. Only the correct substrate will be able to modify the active site in the proper manner. Experimental data seems consistent with this Induced Fit model and inconsistent with the Lock and Key model.

Which model of the enzyme-substrate interaction would require a highly flexible enzyme?

Enzymes (large molecules) serve to catalyze, or speed up, chemical reactions in the human body. This process of catalysis begins with the binding of a substrate (the reactant) to the active site of an enzyme. This active site is simply the portion of the enzyme that interacts with the substrate. Following the binding event, products separate from the enzyme active site, at which point the enzyme is prepared to undergo another reaction cycle. Two scientists offer conflicting views on the nature of the enzyme-substrate interaction.

Scientist 1

The enzyme-substrate interaction can be modeled with a Lock and Key paradigm. In this model, the enzyme represents a lock and the substrate represents a key. Only the substrate of proper size and shape will fit into a particular enzyme's active site and catalyze the reaction. The enzyme-substrate complex, the intermediate of this reaction, is stabilized mostly by strong ionic and hydrogen bonds. Following the formation of this intermediate, the enzyme changes the substrate in some way, leading to formation of a product, which subsequently dissociates from the enzyme.

Scientist 2

The shapes of substrate and enzyme are not exactly complementary. When it binds to the enzyme, the substrate induces the active site to alter its shape in order to enhance the fit. Thus, at first the interaction between substrate and enzyme is weak, but subsequent changes in the active site lead to stronger binding. Only the correct substrate will be able to modify the active site in the proper manner. Experimental data seems consistent with this Induced Fit model and inconsistent with the Lock and Key model.

Assuming Scientist 2 is correct, one would be least likely to find which of the following in the active site when an enzyme initially binds its substrate?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which of the following would be correct under all three theories?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory would most likely consider the greatest number of substances as acids or bases?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Suppose a new discovery finds that acid-base reactions are not actually reversible. Which concept would this discovery most completely disprove?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory supports the concept that acid-base reactions are based on donations between acids and bases?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory would consider boron trifluoride  an acid?

Acids and bases are chemical substances that react with each other and certain other elements to produce compounds like salts. Chemists have discussed the unique reaction between acids and bases significantly, here are three major theories that attempt to explain how acids and bases react.

Theory 1: The Arrhenius acid/base theory focuses on hydrogen, and how acids and bases neutralize each other to form salt and water. Acids dissociate in a solution into hydrogen ions , while bases dissociate in a solution into hydroxide ions . An acid, when introduced to water, will increase the amount of hydrogen ions present (which can be observed as hydronium ions), or decrease the amount of hydroxide ions present. Conversely, a base will either increase the amount of hydroxide ions or decrease the amount of hydronium ions when introduced to water. This is the only way to determine if a substance is an acid or base. When an acid is introduced to a base, a neutralization reaction occurs when the protons  of the acid combine with the hydroxide ions  of the base to form water and a salt byproduct.

Theory 2: The Bronsted-Lowry theory concerns the donation of hydrogen ions from acids to bases and the formation of conjugate pairs. This theory defines acids as the substance that donates a proton, and bases as the substance that accepts the proton. Because reactions can be reversible, acids that have their hydrogen ion removed become that acid’s conjugate base, while bases that receive that hydrogen ion become the original base’s conjugate acid. This is true because if the reaction is reversed, the former-acid with its missing proton will be receiving the hydrogen ion (making it the base) and the former-base with the additional proton will be donating it (making it the acid). Reactions then produce new bases and acids, and do not neutralize to produce salts and water. This acid-base theory does not require a solvent.

Theory 3: The Lewis theory discards the concern with hydrogen ions and focuses on electron-pair donation. According to this theory, acids are substances that can receive an electron pair whereas bases are substances that can donate an electron pair. This broadens the consideration of what is a base or an acid even further, eliminating the need to define substances based on their use of a hydrogen ion. Compounds that have vacancies in their electron octets can be considered Lewis acids, and compounds with extra electrons in their octets can be considered Lewis bases.

Which theory argues that salts are a necessary product of an acid-base reaction?