In the urinary system, the kidneys remove wastes from the blood and produce urine. The ureters are responsible for carrying the urine to be stored in the bladder. The urethra is responsible for draining urine from the bladder and conveying it out of the body.

The large intestine is responsible for absorbing water, salt, and electrolytes; when water is inadequately absorbed, diarrhea can result. The stomach is responsible for mixing food with mucus and gastric juice; it is not involved in absorption. The liver is responsible for producing bile, and the pancreas secretes enzymes to aid in digestion; these organs are also not involved with absorption.

The epiglottis is a structure just above the glottis at the upper part of the larynx, and is composed of elastic cartilage. It prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing by bending horizontally and covering the glottis. This allows the epiglottis to redirect food to the esophagus.

The uvula is the posterior projection of the soft palate and can cover the nasal cavity when swallowing so that food cannot enter. The pharyngeal tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue found behind the uvula.

Alveoli are small grape-like clusters that branch off of the respiratory bronchioles. These alveoli are the sites where oxygen diffuses into the capillaries, and carbon dioxide is exchanged in order to be exhaled.

The respiratory tract begins with the mouth and nasal passages and carries air to and from the alveoli for gas exchange. After entering the mouth and nasal passages, air travels through the pharynx and larynx before entering the trachea. The trachea divides into two primary bronchi before subdividing into numerous smaller bronchioles. Alveoli are located in clusters at the ends of bronchioles and are surrounded by capillaries for gas exchange to occur.

Endocrine organs are capable of secreting hormone signals into the blood. The heart releases atrial-natriuretic hormone, which stimulates vasodilation to reduce blood pressure and affects kidney function. The liver releases insulin-like growth factor in response to growth hormone, which has direct effects on stimulating cell growth and division. The kidneys release renin, which acts to increase blood pressure via sodium retention. The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose concentration.

The medulla oblongata is located in the brain stem and regulates several vital functions, such as respiration and heart rate. It performs these actions via action potentials and innervation, rather than the secretion of hormones.

The pleura is a thin membrane that is made of the parietal and visceral pleura. The parietal pleura serves as lining for the thoracic cavity and the mediastinum. It is comprised of four parts: cervical, mediastinal, diaphragmatic, and costal. The parietal pleura is supplied by the intercostal nerves and the phrenic nerves, while the visceral pleura contains vasomotor nerves and sensory fibers from the vagus nerve. The parietal pleura is sensitive to pain, while the visceral is only sensitive to stretch. The visceral pleura lines the lungs and is delivered oxygen by the bronchial arteries.

The lungs are central to respiration and have connections with the heart and trachea. The lungs expand downwards during inspiration and upwards with expiration due to movement by the diaphragm situated below them. Lung tissue is innervated by parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers that control secretory glands and smooth muscle.

The right lung is much larger and heavier when compared to the left lung. It is divided into three lobes by the oblique and horizontal fissures: lower, middle and upper. The left lung is divided into the upper and lower lobes solely by the oblique fissure. However, it does contain a small tongue-like portion attached to the upper lobe called the lingula. The lungs are supplied by the bronchial arteries and drained by the pulmonary veins.

From the embryonic period to the age of almost 8 years, the lungs will go through four stages to become fully developed. The four stages are glandular, canalicular, terminal sac period, and alveolar period. The glandular stage begins from week 5 of the prenatal period until week 17 and involves the formation of the terminal bronchioles. The canalicular period is from week 13 until week 25 of prenatal life. Respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts form, but they are not mature enough to support breathing outside the uterus. The third stage is called the terminal sac period and takes place from prenatal weeks 24 until birth. This stage forms more terminal sacs and surfactant. Respiration is possible at this time and premature babies can survive if given proper treatment. The last stage of lung development is called the alveolar period, which is from very late into fetal life until the age of 8 years. The alveoli continue to replicate in numbers and the lungs further mature.

The mediastinum is the area found in the thorax contained by the pleural cavities, sternum, and vertebral column. It is further divided into four main divisions: the superior, anterior, middle, and posterior. The superior mediastinum is bordered by the first rib superiorly, anteriorly by the manubrium of the sternum, and posteriorly by the 4th and 5th thoracic vertebra. An imaginary line can be drawn from the intervertebral disk between the 4th and 5th vertebrae to the sternal angle to mark the inferior limits of the superior division. This region contains important structures, vessels, and nerves such as the arch of the aorta, the trachea, and the esophagus. It also contains the thymus. The thymus is the location where immature T-cells mature, and can then contribute to an immunological response. This lymphatic structure will involute with the start of puberty.

The trachea is the structure through which air is transported to the bronchi and the lungs. Its superior border is the cricoid cartilage at the 6th cervical vertebra, and it ends with its bifurcation into the right and left main bronchi at the level of the sternal angle. The trachea is on average 9cm to 15cm long and is lined by hyaline cartilage that hold its shape.