Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein hormone produced in the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

Epinephrine and glucagon are examples of hormones that affect G protein-coupled receptors like adenylate cyclase and increase levels of cAMP. The other hormones listed affect receptor tyrosine kinases and non-receptor tyrosine kinases.

This question is asking us to identify a hormone that passes through the target cell's plasma membrane in order to affect that cell.

When looking at hormones, there are three general types: amine, peptide, and steroid. Out of these, steroid hormones are all capable of crossing the plasma membrane. In fact, the receptors for steroid hormones are often found in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the target cell. Generally, amine and peptide hormones act by binding to a receptor on the outer surface of the target cell's plasma membrane. However, thyroxine is an exception. Thyroxine is an amine hormone based off of the amino acid tyrosine. Normally, amine-derived hormones do not cross the plasma membrane, but the largely hydrophobic nature of thyroxine allows it to cross the plasma membrane and bind with its intracellular receptor.

Of the other answer choices shown, none of them cross the cell membrane. Epinephrine is an amine-derived hormone, utilizing tyrptophan as the starting material. Insulin, glucagon, and growth hormones are all peptide hormones.

Glucagon is a short peptide hormone involved in triggering signal cascades in response to low blood glucose. Biotin, also known as vitamin B7, is a cofactor in fatty acid synthesis. Pyridoxal phosphate, the activated form of vitamin B6, is a cofactor in transamination reactions, among others. Epinephrine is a steroid hormone involved in the fight or flight response.

Scientists have indeed counted about 20,000 proteins coded for by the genome. Coding sequences are only about 2% or less of the genome. The definition of paralogs is genes related by duplication within a genome. Within the genome, not about 5%, but rather about 50%, of DNA sequences are repeated.

The pentose phosphate pathway (also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt or HMS), which mainly serves to produce  for anabolic reduction reactions and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleic acid production, takes place in the cytosol of hepatic cells.

From the carbon skeleton of oxaloacetate, methionine can be created.  However, glutamine comes from alpha ketoglutarate, valine and leucine come from pyruvate, and histidine comes from ribose-5-phosphate.

The reaction for the conversion of glutamine into glutamate is:

As seen in the reaction above, carbon dioxide is uninvolved.

When a change results in an early stop codon, nonsense mutation occurs and the protein is done being read early, often resulting in a nonfunctional protein. When a base change results into a different amino acid, this is a missense mutation. When a base change occurs but results in the same amino acid being read, this is considered a silent mutation. 

To answer this question, it's essential to have an understanding of what a signal sequence is.

A signal sequence (also sometimes called a signal peptide) is a specific sequence of amino acids on a polypeptide that appears near the beginning of translation. When this signal sequence is present, it causes a temporary halt in the translation process. Meanwhile, another protein called a signal recognition particle (SRP) comes along and binds to the ribosome that is translating the polypeptide. Together, this polypeptide-ribosome-SRP complex is transferred from the cytosol to the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Once there, the complex allows the polypeptide to resume synthesis, but in doing so, causes it to be synthesized into the inner lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. Consequently, this polypeptide will go on to be modified within the ER and also the Golgi apparatus. Afterwards, it will be sent off within a vesicle, where is will either be A) secreted outside of the cell or B) incorporated into the endomembrane system of the cell (in other words, the peptide will be inserted into a membrane such as the plasma membrane, ER membrane, Golgi membrane, etc.). Lastly, it is the nuclear localization sequence (NLS) that, when added to a protein, allows it to enter the nucleus through the nuclear membrane.