The Battle of Tours was fought in modern-day France in the eighth century between the forces of Christian Europe, led by Charles Martel, King of the Franks and the forces of Islam. Since its formation a century earlier, Islam had spread rapidly throughout the Middle East and North Africa. By the early eighth century much of the Iberian peninsula was under Arab control and it seemed as if soon all of Western Europe would succumb to the Islamic invasion. Victory at the Battle of Tours stopped the tide of Arab conquest and preserved the rule of Christendom in Western Europe.

William the Conqueror was a Duke of Normandy when he invaded England in 1066. He defeated the recently crowned British King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, and in so doing took control of the Kingdom of England. This period of time is known in English history as the Norman conquest. It had dramatic consequences in English history, including the adoption of European style feudalism in Britain.

The Hundred Years’ War, with its forty-four nonconsecutive years of actual combat, finally came to an end in 1453, with a decisive French victory. France’s military position had been strengthened with a newly-formed alliance with Burgundy, allowing the French forces to concentrate all their military might on ousting the English. Eventually, the English army could hold on no longer, and with the declaration of French victory, England was forced to relinquish nearly all the French territory that it had once held under King Edward III. Only the coastal region of Calais was left under English control. Due to the overwhelming expenses run up by the war, both England and France raised taxes upon their respective populations, with the greatest burden falling, once again, upon the already struggling peasant class. The French king took special advantage of these circumstances and moved to shore up the monarchy’s position of dominance over the nobility, so that the French crown exercised more and more political, social, and even economic control.

Mahmud of Ghazni ruled over an empire in modern-day Afghanistan in the eleventh century. His empire grew immensely wealthy from the riches his armies plundered from northern India. He conquered or weakened many northern India states and paved the way for the Islamic conquest of India a few centuries later.

The War of the Roses was one of many bloody civil wars fought over the issue of succession. After the death of Henry V in 1422, the lack of a strong Lancaster heir (the crowned successor, Henry VI, was an infant) led to a conflicting claim by Richard, Duke of York. After some initial successes by the House of York, the Lancasters eventually won out and reclaimed the throne. 

All of these statements about the Song Dynasty are accurate, except that it began with the overthrow of Mongol invaders. The Song Dynasty came to power in 960 CE and brought to an end the period of Chinese history known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It reigned until 1279 CE when it was overthrown by Mongol invaders (who established the Yuan Dynasty). The Song Dynasty featured significant military conquest and territorial growth, a rapidly growing population, and an abundant food surplus. The Song, in reaction to a severe financial crisis, were the first to issue paper bank notes. Gunpowder and the compass were both also invented during the Song Dynasty.

Genghis Khan conquered the Seljuks, a Turkish tribe predominant in Anatolia from the 11th to the 13th centuries, and the Persians in the 13th century.

The Greco-Persian wars were fought between the Greek city states and the The Achaemenid Empire of Persia in the 400s BCE. The wars began after Cyrus the Great conquered Ionia. Eventually, the Greeks overcame the Persians, with the result of renewed independence of the previously conquered areas.

Slavery in Africa was very common even before the arrival of Europeans. Rival communities would often go to war and the survivors of the losing party would often be enslaved by the victors; however, the arrival of the Europeans significantly increased the demand for slaves and accelerated the rate of enslavement. It also meant more and more coastal kingdoms were dedicating themselves to capturing slaves from the interior of the continent to sell to European traders.

The Battle of Tours occurred on 10 October 732 CE near Poitiers, France cementing Christianity's influence on Europe by stopping the Moorish Muslim invaders. With great military might the Umayyed caliph quickly conquered North Africa and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar conquering the Iberian Peninsula from the Christian Visigoths. Expanding eastward, they were stopped by a Frankish army led by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, stopping the advancement of Islam into mainland Europe.