The political machinations for control over the Estates General began before that body had even had a chance to hold its first official meeting. As the King and the entire membership of the Estates General knew, the legislative body’s first order of business would have to be the establishment of an organized structural system and voting procedures. The aristocrats in the Second Estate were determined to limit the influence of the Third Estate as much as possible, because they believed that any power wielded by the Third Estate would automatically come at the expense of their own power. Accordingly, the Second Estate devised a two-part scheme to suppress the Third Estate: first, they intended to make sure that each Estate would have the exact same number of members (regardless of the respective population sizes that each Estate represented). Secondly, they began to urge that internal Estate voting procedures would be carried out on the basis of “one Estate = one vote.” Such an electoral setup would all but guarantee that the First and Second Estates could combine their two votes and overrule the Third Estate whenever they so desired. Naturally, when news of this plan leaked to the public, the Third Estate, as well as many members of the public, were livid – it appeared as though the Second Estate was already trying to subvert fair play and equitable dealings, all before the Estates General had even held its first assembly. Eventually, the public outcry became so loud that the French government was forced to take countermeasures: they passed a resolution guaranteeing that the Third Estate would include twice as many representatives as the other two Estates.

The Ministry of Religious Endowments provided for the Ottoman state's takeover of the charitable organizations (including properties and assets) of religious leaders. While the Uluma remained active with the charitable organizations, their actions were now channeled through a state institution and over time the Uluma began to lose control of properties and were weakened relative to the state.

Despite introducing many modernizing reforms by the early 19th century, the state financial system still relied heavily on borrowing from European financial institutions and during this time incurred a large amount of debt to finance other projects. 

The first Ottoman constitution was introduced in 1876. It rejected the millet system and vested some power in the Senate but the Sultan remained a strong figure. 

The Jacobins and the Girondins were two political parties who emerged into prominence during the French Revolution. The Jacobins were considered the more radical of the two groups and are credited with encouraging bloodshed before and during the Reign of Terror. The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) was the most brutal part of the French Revolution. It was administered by the, rather inappropriately named, Committee for Public Safety which was headed by the infamous Maximilien Robespierre. During the Reign of Terror the Jacobins had the Girondins executed. Eventually the Committee for Public Safety would lose support of the French population and, to mark the end of the Reign of Terror, Robespierre was sentenced to death.

The Estates General had long been the governing parliamentary body of the French Kingdom, but unlike their English counterpart, the Estates General had limited power and could only be convened at the discretion of the monarch. At the beginning of the French Revolution the Estates General was replaced with the National Assembly (after the Third Estates - the common people - broke from the Estates General).

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) was the last ruling dynasty in Chinese history before the formation of the Republic of China.

Muhammad Ali was a general in the Ottoman army who eventually gained control over the territory of modern-day Egypt. His authority was temporarily approved by the Ottoman Empire and Ali set about establishing, reforming, and modernizing the Egyptian state.

In July 1792, under severe pressure from the city’s working class population, the vital city of Paris set up a new form of city-wide government. Known as the Paris Commune, this new system was comprised of a special committee, staffed with elected representatives from each of the city’s municipalities. Very swiftly, the Paris Commune became an extremely strong radical force, with a fixation on defending the city, as well as the entire country, from so-called “enemies” of the Revolution. Anyone suspected of dubious and/or anti-Revolutionary loyalty was forcibly intimidated by Commune members; the group soon added lengthy imprisonment and execution to its repertoire as well. As fear of the Commune spread, so too did the body’s fearsome reputation; before long, the Commune wielded a strong share of political dominance over the entire Revolutionary national government, sharing both its fervent, forceful ideals and its embrace of violent tactics.

The Jacobins were one of the most influential political groups in the era of the French Revolution. Formed by members of the Third Estate who had served in the National Constituent Assembly, the Jacobins were fervent devotees of Enlightenment principles; they especially idolized the French political thinker, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Inspired by Rousseau’s ideals of civic virtue and social equality, the Jacobins campaigned for the institution of a republic, a structure that they believed would most effectively and justly govern their people. After news of King Louis XVI’s attempted escape from Paris was revealed, many outraged French citizens threw their support behind the Jacobins’ republican plan.