As part of his ambitious plan to increase Russia’s influence, czar Peter the Great was determined to expand his country’s territorial holdings. He especially coveted a section of the Baltic coastline, which would allow Russia to have year-round access to warm water ports ideally situated for international trade. However, most of the Baltic was controlled by Sweden, but Peter was not about to let that stop him. In 1700, he boldly invaded the Baltic region, issuing a direct challenge to the Swedish King Charles XII to either defend or risk losing his Baltic territory. The conflict, known as the Great Northern War, lasted for twenty-one years, and despite several crushing early losses, Peter’s forces only grew stronger as the war dragged on. The conflict finally ended in 1721, when Sweden at last capitulated. Russia gained a great deal of new territory, including parts of Finland, Estonia, Livonia, and most importantly, Peter’s long-desired Baltic coastline and lucrative warm water ports.

The Qing Dynasty began in 1644 when invaders from Manchuria overthrew the Ming Dynasty. It lasted until 1912 (not including an abortive restoration in 1917). It was the last dynasty in Chinese history.

The English Civil War was fought between 1642-1651 between forces loyal to parliament (called Parliamentarians or “Roundheads”) and forces loyal to the crown (called Royalists or “Cavaliers”). The war began during the reign of the English King Charles I. The war ended in victory for the Parliamentarians and the execution of Charles I.

The War of the Roses is aptly named because the two opposing houses were both represented by roses, though, of different colors. The House of Lancaster bore the red rose, while the House of York proudly displayed the white rose.

The Hundred Years War was a conflict between the respective houses of the leaders of France and England during which the English House of Plantaganet and French House Valois fought for control of France. The war took a great toll on the population of both countries. After the failure of the English to claim the throne of France, Henry VI experienced a mental breakdown and was considered incapable of ruling. His fragile mental state encouraged the Lancasters and the Yorks to begin their quests for the throne and begin a century long battle for the title of King of England.

The English Civil War was essentially a war between the monarchy and parliament for ultimate authority over the government of England. It also featured a conflict between Anglicanism (the religion of the vast majority of Parliament) and Catholicism (the religion of the monarchy at the time). The war ended in victory for the Parliamentarians and the execution of Charles I.

The majority of the Thirty Years’ War was fought in territory that comprises the modern state of Germany. Germany at the time was not a unified country, rather it was a collection of principalities and electorates, most of whom were administered under the Holy Roman Empire. The Thirty Years’ War devastated the population of Central Europe, by some estimates as many as a third of the population died as a result of the conflict.

The Peace of Westphalia was signed in 1648, bringing to an end the hostilities of the devastating Thirty Years’ War.

The Mughal Empire was established in the Indian subcontinent in the sixteenth century and ruled, with a few interruptions, until the arrival of the British East India Company in the eighteenth century. The Mughal Empire was an Islamic empire that was established in a territory with a majority Hindu population.

The civilian casualties among German states population range from 25 to 40 percent as a result of the 1618-1648 military conflict. Catholic and Protestant tension escalated this region skirmish into a full blow world war involving all major powers in Europe. In the end there were no real winners of the war, but the losers were truly the civilians of the German states.