The ego acts as a mediator between the id and the superego. The id is very impulsive, operating on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification. The superego represents the ideal in every situation and operates on the perfection principle. It also is the part of our personality with morals and standards; thus, it produces feelings of guilt and pride. The ego is mediates between the id and the superego and is involved with the prefrontal cortex in planning. By planning, the ego is able to accomplish goals and maximize pleasurable results. Unlike the id, the ego can delay gratification using secondary processes. 

The oral psychosocial stage lasts from approximately 0-1 year. The psychosocial stages increase in age starting from oral and then progressing to anal, phallic, latency, and settling at the genital level. Freud proposed that throughout the duration of life, libido—sexual desire—shifts from one part of the body to another. Freud proposed that problems arise when one of these psychosocial stages was not satisfied in an individual. For example, if an adult is addicted to smoking cigarettes, then Freud might say that as a child he or she was punished for sucking on his or her thumb. As a result, this patient never satisfied the oral psychosocial stage; therefore, this patient seeks oral gratification from smoking.

The correct answer is sublimation. Sublimation is defined as the conversion of sexual or aggressive impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. In this case, you were able to convert your anger into a more productive, socially acceptable activity: cleaning. Defense mechanisms are created by the ego to reduce anxiety and distort reality. Defense mechanisms consist of sublimation, repression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, and fixation.

According to Gestalt principles of perceptual organization, the human brain is dynamic. When we encounter sensory input such as shapes and patterns, we instantly organize them into unified wholes instead of individual clusters. This process is spontaneous and inevitable, and occurs without learning. 

Neo-Freudians were theorists who disagreed with some of the tenets of Sigmund Freud's theory. They included Karen Horney, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Erich Fromm. Freud made the statement that children pass through a series of psychosexual stages. He believed that each stage involved children receiving pleasure from a specific part of the body. If children were not able to successfully complete the stage, then they would become fixated as adults. The stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. All of the other statements are consistent with the theories of Neo-Freudians. Erik Erikson believed personality was shaped by more than early childhood experiences, and proposed his own psychosocial stages that spanned from infancy to late adulthood. Karen Horney disagreed with the idea of penis envy, and proposed the concept of womb envy. Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by feelings of inferiority. Carl Jung asserted the concept of the personal and collective unconscious, which includes unconscious concepts that are shared among members of the same species. 

Rotter is known as a proponent of expanding behaviorism to include internal subjective experiences. Unlike Skinner, he did not believe that learning and behavior could be explained by only focusing on what was objectively, empirically observed. Rather, he sought to integrate the notion of the individual’s perceptions and beliefs into the study of learning.

Rotter was among the first psychologists to integrate the influence of social experiences into behaviorist learning theory. He is credited with recognizing that human beings do not function in isolation. Rather, we are actively engaged in conscious cognitive processing of our environment and assessing consequences such as risk and reward in relation to our behavior. 

According to Rotter, behavioral outcomes are governed by subjective expectations of the outcomes or results of our behavior. This is because different types of reinforcement have different values, depending on the person. What is reinforcing for one person may not matter to another. For example, one child may learn to clean his room when promised time to play computer games while another may respond to a chance to play outdoors.

In social learning theory, the term “locus of control” refers to the belief that individuals hold about the source of reinforcement for his or her own behavior. In other words, some people believe that they have an ability to exert control over their own lives (i.e. internal locus of control) while others believe that their lives are mostly controlled by luck or fate (i.e. external locus of control).

“Locus of control” is one of the most frequently studied psychological constructs. It is a major component of social learning theory and refers to an individual’s belief regarding their ability to exert control over their own lives. In general, individuals with an internal locus of control tend to see themselves as more powerful in their own lives, and this belief is associated with greater health, lower stress and more freedom of choice. Individuals with an external locus of control tend to view themselves as less powerful in their lives and may be more susceptible to depression, anxiety, stress and high blood pressure.