O₂ has a nonpolar covalent bond. Nonpolar covalent bonds are bonds formed between atoms that have the same (or nearly the same) electronegativity. Since both oxygen atoms have the same electronegativity, they will have a nonpolar covalent bond between them. 

The intramolecular bonds within a water molecule are polar covalent bonds. O-H bonds are polar covalent since there is more electron density around the oxygen atom than there is around the hydrogen atom, making the oxygen atom slightly negative and the hydrogen atom slighty positive. This polarity allows for intermolecular hydrogen bonding; water does not exhibit intramolecular hydrogen bonding.

This bond is not ionic since the oxygen does not completly steal the electron away from the hydrogen (the electronegativity difference between the two atoms is between 0.4 and 1.7 on the Pauling scale).

 is an ionic compound, while  is a nonpolar covalent compound. Remember that polarity results from a difference in the electronegativities of the atoms involved in the bond. Too great of a difference will result in an ionic bond; two of the same atoms will have zero difference, resulting in a nonpolar bond.

, , and  contain polar covalent bonds. In the first two, oxygen will carry a slight negative charge, leaving sulfate and phosphorus with slight positive charges. In , chlorine will carry a slight negative charge, leaving the carbon slightly positive. In  and , symmetry helps to balance the polar bonds, resulting in an overall nonpolar molecule, even though the individual bonds are nonpolar.

Covalency is a form of electron sharing that lets an atom fulfill the octet rule. The sharing may be unequal, in which case the more electronegative species more strongly attracts the electrons than the weaker, less electronegative species, creating a polar covalent bond. In the Lewis dot model, however, we draw the electrons in freeze-frame, equally distributed between the various atoms.

A sigma bond is a single covalent bond, involving an electron pair located between the two bonding atoms. A pi bond occurs when the p orbitals above and below the bonding atoms overlap, or when the p orbitals to the left and right overlap. In any covalent bond, the first bond formed is a sigma bond and any additional bonds must be pi bonds. Initial orbital overlap always comes from the sigma, or s, subshell; subsequent overlap comes from the pi, or p, subshells.

This question is testing your ability to draw Lewis dot structures and your knowledge of how resonance effects bond length. The N-O bond with the greatest pi-bond character will be the shortest; thus, we are looking for a double- or triple-bond between nitrogen and oxygen.

Hydroxylamine () only contains single bonds, which have the least pi-bond character.

The nitrite and nitrate ions both have a double bond between the nitrogen and oxygen, but also one or more single bonds between these elements. This means that, because of resonance, the N-O bonds in these molecules will be averaged and our average bond order will be somewhere between single and double. Nitrate will have one double bond and two single bonds, for an average bond order of 1.33. Nitrite has one single bond and one double bond, for a bond order of 1.5.

The nitrosyl ion, however, will contain a triple bonds between the nitrogen and oxygen atoms, giving it the greatest pi-bond character. This bond will contain more energy and be shorter than the bonds in the other answer options.

Osmotic pressure is defined as the tendency for water to diffuse into a solution via osmosis. Since the membrane is not permeable to ions, the salt ions are unable to cross the membrane and make the concentrations equal on both sides of the tube. Instead, water will flow to the side that has salt until the pressure in the tube with salt equals the forces of entropy. This will result in a higher level of water on the side of the tube with salt in it.

Remember that there are two types of ions: cations and anions. Cations are produced when a atom of a molecule loses an electron. A neutral atom will contain no charge; however, when the atom loses an electron the atom becomes positively charged because it will contain more protons than electrons. In reaction 2, the nitrogen in ammonia loses an electron (because it shares the electron with the new hydrogen atom), which produces a positively charged ammonium ion. The ammonium ion is a cation because of this positive charge.

Anions are formed when an atom gains an electron, which makes the overall charge of an atom negative. The hydroxide ions from reaction 2 are anions.

Electrolyte solutions are formed when a compound creates ions once in solution. Carbon dioxide will not create ions in solution, so it is not a good electrolyte.

(This is the acid dissociation for acetic acid.)

The Vant Hoff factor indicates how many particles a solid produces when dissolved in solution. When Li₃PO₄dissolves in solution, there are three Li⁺ molecules and one molecule of PO₄^-3. The Vant Hoff factor is equal to the sum of molecules: .