The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis. 

One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus. 

Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.

Which of the following are associated with the G protein-coupled receptor? 

I. Adenylate cyclase

II. Phospholipase C 

III. Diacylglycerol 

The cellular membrane is a very important structure. The lipid bilayer is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic. The hydrophilic layer faces the extracellular fluid and the cytosol of the cell. The hydrophobic portion of the lipid bilayer stays in between the hydrophobic regions like a sandwich. This bilayer separation allows for communication, protection, and homeostasis. 

One of the most utilized signaling transduction pathways is the G protein-coupled receptor pathway. The hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the cellular membrane allows for the peptide and other hydrophilic hormones to bind to the receptor on the cellular surface but to not enter the cell. This regulation allows for activation despite the hormone’s short half-life. On the other hand, hydrophobic hormones must have longer half-lives to allow for these ligands to cross the lipid bilayer, travel through the cell’s cytosol and eventually reach the nucleus. 

Cholesterol allows the lipid bilayer to maintain its fluidity despite the fluctuation in the body’s temperature due to events such as increasing metabolism. Cholesterol binds to the hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer. When the temperature is low, the cholesterol molecules prevent the hydrophobic tails from compacting and solidifying. When the temperature is high, the hydrophobic tails will be excited and will move excessively. This excess movement will bring instability to the bilayer. Cholesterol will prevent excessive movement.

Which of the following molecules can be found inside of a cell? 

I. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) 

II. Protein kinase A

III. Protein kinase C

The mechanism by which a macrophage engulfs cellular debris and/or pathogens is best described as __________.

Which cells would be expected to have the highest rate of endocytosis?

Prions are the suspected cause of a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases in mammals. According to prevailing theory, prions are infectious particles made only of protein and found in high concentrations in the brains of infected animals. All mammals produce normal prion protein, PrP^C, a transmembrane protein whose function remains unclear. 

Infectious prions, PrP^Res, induce conformational changes in the existing PrP^C proteins according to the following reaction:

PrP^C  + PrP^Res  → PrP^Res + PrP^Res

The PrP^Res is then suspected to accumulate in the nervous tissue of infected patients and cause disease. This model of transmission generates replicated proteins, but does so bypassing the standard model of the central dogma of molecular biology. Transcription and translation apparently do not play a role in this replication process.

This theory is a major departure from previously established biological dogma. A scientist decides to test the protein-only theory of prion propagation. He establishes his experiment as follows:

Homogenized brain matter of infected rabbits is injected into the brains of healthy rabbits, as per the following table:

Rabbit 1 and 2: injected with normal saline on days 1 and 2

The above trials serve as controls.

Rabbit 3 and 4: injected with homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2

The above trials use unmodified brain matter.

Rabbit 5 and 6: injected with irradiated homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2

The above trials use brain matter that has been irradiated to destroy nucleic acids in the homogenate.

Rabbit 7 and 8: injected with protein-free centrifuged homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2

The above trials use brain matter that has been centrifuged to generate a protein-free homogenate and a protein-rich homogenate based on molecular weight.

Rabbit 9 and 10: injected with boiled homogenized brain matter on days 1 and 2

The above trials use brain matter that have been boiled to destroy any bacterial contaminants in the homogenate.

A novel cell line is created that lacks PrPC. These cells are functionally normal except they grow uncontrollably and do not appear to have a finite number of divisions. PrPC is thus most likely involved in which process?

Most scientists subscribe to the theory of endosymbiosis to explain the presence of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. According to the theory of endosymbiosis, early pre-eukaryotic cells phagocytosed free living prokaryotes, but failed to digest them. As a result, these prokaryotes remained in residence in the pre-eukaryotes, and continued to generate energy. The host cells were able to use this energy to gain a selective advantage over their competitors, and eventually the energy-producing prokaryotes became mitochondria.

In many ways, mitochondria are different from other cellular organelles, and these differences puzzled scientists for many years. The theory of endosymbiosis concisely explains a number of these observations about mitochondria. Perhaps most of all, the theory explains why aerobic metabolism is entirely limited to this one organelle, while other kinds of metabolism are more distributed in the cellular cytosol.

Cells with abnormalities in critical systems, such as mitochondria, will often undergo apoptosis. Which of the following is true of apoptosis?

Which of the following are common occurances in apoptosis that are not seen during necrosis?

I. Membrane blebbing

II. DNA fragmentation

III. Cell shrinkage

There are two models for the operation of the Golgi apparatus in eukaryotic cells. As it is difficult to visualize the operation of cells at the molecular level in real time, scientists typically rely on static electron micrographs to see the morphology of organelles. As a result, the dynamic operation of these organelles can sometimes be unclear.

Cisternal Maturation Hypothesis

In the cisternal maturation hypothesis, the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus evolve. Proteins leave the endoplasmic reticulum, and enter the cis-Golgi. The cisterna of the cis-Golgi then matures, with its enzymatic contents and internal environment changing as it becomes the medial-Golgi, and, eventually, the trans-Golgi.

In this model, the proteins never physically leave their membrane-bound cisternae during their transit across the Golgi. Instead, the entire unit of contents remains within the evolving cisternae.

Vesicular Transport Hypothesis

In contrast to the cisternal maturation hypothesis, the vesicular transport hypothesis posits that the cis-, medial-, and trans-Golgi cisternae are more static structures. Instead of evolving around their contents, the contents are physically shuttled via vesicular intermediates from each cisterna to the next.

In the case of vesicular transport, vesicles are shuttled along microtubules. Motor proteins facilitate this movement, with unique proteins being used for each direction of movement along a microtubule.

The Golgi apparatus has been implicated in cell death pathways. A scientist finds that a cell death pathway involving the Golgi is used in the breakdown of extra skin between digits during embryonic development. This pathway __________.

Apoptosis can be induced by mitochondria via the release of which protein from the mitochondrial inner membrane? 

An important part of creating DNA primers when performing a PCR or other quantitative analysis is the melting point of the primer.  Which set of primers would most likely work well together as the forward and reverse primers of a PCR?