Spikes are either composed of hemagglutinin protein (HA) or protein neuraminidase (NA). HA helps the virus link with the host cell membrane while NA allows the release of a newly formed viral particle from the host cell.

Retroviruses carry their genetic information in RNA form. They are named for their use of reverse transcriptase, which allows the conversion of RNA to DNA. They are known to convert their RNA into DNA to a host cell permanently.

A frameshift mutation results in a change of the codon reading frame and results from the addition or deletion of a set of nucleotides that is not a multiple of three. If a mutation occurs that is a multiple of three, the reading frame is unchanged and a simple addition or deletion has occurred.

Template:               5'-AGC-CTT-AGC-3' 

Frameshift mutant:  5'-AGC-GCT-TAG-C-3' 

Point mutant:          5'-TGC-CTT-AGC-3'

Point mutant:          5'-AGC-CTT-AGG-3'

Deletion:                5'-CTT-AGC-3'

Insertion:               5'-TTT-AGC-CTT-AGC-3'

Note that all except the frameshift mutation contain sets of three nucleotides to create triplets. The frameshift leaves a singular, un-grouped cytosine.

DNA helicase is responsible for breaking bonds between base pairs in the DNA thus unwinding it for replication.

Mutations can cause a huge variety of effects, including proteins that don't work (loss-of-function) and proteins that are too active (gain-of-function). Not all mutations are loss-of-function. Mutations can be inherited or from environmental factors, and many times a mutation will mean nothing at all for the organism. 

A nonsense mutation will cause the protein to never be completed because of a premature stop codon, hence the protein "never makes sense," ie nonsense. Missense will make a protein with the incorrect amino acid sequence. A point mutation can cause a nonsense mutation, but is not the best answer, as it is vague. The other two mutations also theoretically can cause a nonsense mutation, but nonsense is most specific answer. 

Epigenetic deals with which genes are expressed and which are repressed. Genes are turned on or off via methylation or acetylation of the histone wrapping the DNA. Single nucleotide polymorphism is an inherited single nucleotide change at a specific position of the genome, contributing to risk factors or being a modifier to a disease. Copy number variation are the repeats of sequence in the genome and the number of repeats vary for each individual. Non-coding RNA refers to RNA that is not translated into a protein.

Sub-metacentric is when the the centromere is off to one side. Metacentric is when the centromere is in the middle. Acrocentric is when the centromere is at one end. Lop-centric is not a real thing.

Isochromosome is when one arm is deleted and the other arm is copied to make the second arm a copy of the first. Translocation is an even exchange of information between non-homologous chromosomes. Inversion is when a piece of a chromosome switches direction or is reversed. Ring chromosome is when the telomeres are the end of a chromosome are cleaved off and the remaining chromosomal ends join forming a ring.

BAX is pro- apoptotic along with BID. BAK, BAD.  Bcl-2, Bcl-XI, Mcl-1 are all anti-apoptotic. This is important in the mitochondrial death pathways.