Mark Antony had been a longtime ally of Julius Caesar and following the latter’s death, Antony ruled as part of the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Marcus Lepidus. Over time Antony came to live in Alexandria, the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt, where he fathered children with the Egyptian Pharaoh Cleopatra. The Battle of Actium was the climax of the civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian and ended in the total destruction of Cleopatra and Antony’s fleet.

Lucius Sulla was a Roman military commander during the second and first centuries BCE. He led an armed march on the city of Rome during the Roman Civil Wars and had himself crowned dictator (a position which had been retired for more than a century). His actions permanently destabilized the Roman Republic and encouraged the rise of Julius Caesar and the Roman Empire.

Julius Caesar was assassinated by a group of conspirators in the Roman Senate in 44 BCE. Those that assassinated him were motivated by their loss of power and their fears about the nature of Roman politics in the wake of Caesar’s declaring himself dictator for life.

The Battle of Actium took place in 31 BCE. It was the final confrontation of the final civil war of the Roman Republic. It began as a naval engagement between the forces of Octavian (later Augustus Caesar) and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. It ended in victory for Octavian and cemented his rise to power. In 27 BCE he would be crowned as the first emperor of the nascent Roman Empire.

The Peloponnesian War was fought between an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens and an alliance of Greek city-states led by Sparta in the fifth century BCE. It ended in total victory for Sparta, the destruction of Athens, and the decline of Athenian culture.

The First Triumvirate of Rome was comprised of an uneasy alliance between Julius Caesar, Marcus Crassus, and Pompey the Great. The alliance lasted until the death of Crassus when Pompey and Caesar began to compete with one another. Pompey was tasked by the Roman Senate with defending the city from Caesar after the latter’s famous crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BCE, but Pompey was defeated in battle paving the way for Caesar to declare himself dictator of Rome for life.

Charlemagne worked very closely with the Papacy, and both believed the expanding Muslim influence to be a threat to Christendom. In the Mid-Eighth Century, Charlemagne began a war with the Muslims under the Umayyad Caliphate to stop their expansion.

Genghis Khan's empire stretched from China to Western Asia but his advance into Africa was arrested by Mamluks, a group of slaves who freed themselves and then immediately fought off the Mongol army.

The Red Guards were young Maoists during the Cultural Revolution in China, they existed hundreds of years after Genghis Khan's empire had already collapsed.

The Vietcong were Communist Vietnamese in the 20th century who fought against the United States, they existed hundreds of years after the Mongol empire had already collapsed.

The Confederates were a group of southern planters and soldiers who attempted to break away from the American union in order to protect their slavery based economy.

The Boxers were 19th century anti-Western fighters, they existed long after the Mongol empire had already collapsed.

The Hundred Years’ War, which lasted, off and on, from 1337 to 1453, and was fought between England and France, was caused by a perfect storm of motivations. Taken together, various social, economic, and political factors conspired to push these two nations ever deeper into the throes of military and nationalistic conflict. One of the main causes was a long history of disputed ownership of the territory of Flanders – a prosperous center of cloth manufacturing, France technically owned Flanders, but many of the territory’s citizens and funds were far more loyal to England, which provided the territory with the wool it needed for its cloth industry. The English King Edward III also administered several former French pieces of land – but these lands were still nominally owned by the French crown, which had loaned the territories to England since the Norman Conquest. By the time of the outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War, neither nation was content with this system of land loaning, because each side believed that it deserved sole control over these territories. Relations were worsened when Edward III declared that he was the rightful heir to the French King Charles IV, who died in 1328 without a male heir. Enraged by the English king’s pretensions, the French nobility selected Philip VI as their new ruler, which outraged Edward III in turn. The long tradition of hatred between these two nations, nurtured within both English and French societies for centuries, at last came to a violent head.

While France wielded several advantages over England during the Hundred Years’ War, the strength of the French military cannot be counted as one of them. In fact, when it came to overall strength, the English military was by far more superior, especially in terms of both their level of training and their weaponry (English archers were known for their keen use of the treacherous longbow). By contrast, the French army, although larger – which reflected the overall greater size of the French population – was not nearly as well trained as their English counterparts. However, the French government was much richer than their English foes, which helped them to be able to procure more replacements (of both men and weapons) after every English victory, while the English army had a more difficult time finding replacement weapons and fighting men. Perhaps most crucially, France possessed the defensive advantage – because most of the fighting ended up occurring on French lands, the French soldiers were automatically able to benefit from their knowledge of the terrain and the support of the local peasant population. The English army, meanwhile, was forced to navigate across unfamiliar territory, coming up against obstacles put in their way by both nature and the local populace. Lastly, French morale received a substantial boost from the inspiration presence, speeches, and military engagement of the famous Joan of Arc. The so-called Maid of Orleans, with her courageous fighting spirit, encouraged the French people to fight onward, even after devastating defeats.