The election of 1960 marked the end of the two terms of President Eisenhower. The election was important for many reasons. It was assumed, correctly, that Eisenhower’s Vice President Richard Nixon would be the Republican Party nominee. Nixon had turned the office of the Vice President into a national political base for the 1960 election during his time in office, thus the assumption was correct. Additionally, the 1960 election was the first election in which Alaska and Hawaii participated in the election process, as they had been granted statehood the previous year. This is significant because now all fifty states would hold primaries. However, Nixon did not run in all the state primaries because of the assumption that he would be his party’s nominee because he had served as Vice President under President Eisenhower. He did choose to run uncontested in a few primaries but only to prove his ability to get popular votes. The election was the source of much debate as well, because of the candidacy of Virginia Senator Harry F. Byrd running as a third party candidate. His presence also contributed to making the election of 1960 the closest in popular vote since the 1884 election.

Why was the election of 1960 considered one of the closest elections in American History?  

The Cold War intensified in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tensions between the United States and the United Soviet Social Republic increased as the rivalry between the United States and the USSR manifested itself in economic and political clashes. In the United States, this lead to a period of perceived threats posed by communist and leftist sympathizers inside the country. It was feared that these individuals would work as spies for the USSR, and therefore, posed a threat to the security of the United States. This fear was known as the Red Scare; red referred to the red color of the Soviet flag and the supposed allegiance to the Soviet beliefs. This fear effected both the American government and society. In March 1947, President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9835, known as the Loyalty Order, requiring all federal employees to be analyzed for sufficient loyalty to the government. This was an unusual action, when one considers the foundation of American in liberty and freedom of political organization. The legislative branch became involved in the Red Scare with the actions of The House Unamerican Activities Committee and Senator Joseph McCarthy in the forefront of investigating allegations of subversive elements in the government and the Hollywood film industry. Other governmental agencies were involved in the investigations as well. Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover equated any form of protest to communist subversion and took a role in the investigations as well. Hoover had been part of an earlier less pervasive Red Scare in the years following World War I. He viewed his role in the investigations to be one of information gathering. He collected extensive files on suspected subversives using wiretaps, surveillance and infiltration of leftist groups. These files were used in trials for espionage. The House Unamerican Activities Committee reacted to probes into alleged subversive activity by “blacklisting” individuals it considered suspicious. But Senator Joseph McCarthy was the most visible and well-known figure during the years of the Red Scare. His anticommunist campaign took the form of Senate hearings relying on hearsay and intimidation to obtain testimony against alleged communist sympathizers. He was the most powerful and most feared figure in American politics during the Red Scare. Many individuals came under his scrutiny. Some lost careers and had their reputations destroyed. One of the most famous cases was that of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg who were tried, convicted and executed for committing espionage. The United States Supreme Court also played a role in the Red Scare with its ruling on a case that shocked many Americans by limiting the basic rights and freedoms of Americans.  

What was the name and ruling of this Supreme Court case?

"I have come today from the turmoil of your Capital to the tranquillity of your campus to speak about the future of your country.

The purpose of protecting the life of our nation and preserving the liberty of our citizens is to pursue the happiness of our people. Our success in that pursuit is the test of our success as a nation.

For a century we labored to settle and to subdue a continent. For half a century we called upon unbounded invention and untiring industry to create an order of plenty for all of our people.

The challenge of the next half century is whether we have the wisdom to use that wealth to enrich and elevate our national life, and to advance the quality of our American civilization.

Your imagination and your initiative, and your indignation will determine whether we build a society where progress is the servant of our needs, or a society where old values and new visions are buried under unbridled growth. For in your time we have the opportunity to move not only toward the rich society and the powerful society, but upward to the Great Society.

The Great Society rests on abundance and liberty for all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are totally committed in our time. But that is just the beginning."

Who delivered the speech above?

"It did not take atomic weapons to make man want peace...But the atomic bomb was the turn of the screw. It made the prospect of future war unendurable. It has led us up those last few steps to the mountain pass; and beyond there is a different country."

J. Robert Oppenheimer, commencement address, 1946

How did the invention of atomic weapons affect the development of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States?

"It did not take atomic weapons to make man want peace...But the atomic bomb was the turn of the screw. It made the prospect of future war unendurable. It has led us up those last few steps to the mountain pass; and beyond there is a different country."

J. Robert Oppenheimer, commencement address, 1946

Which of the following events reflected the change in relations between countries that Oppenheimer predicted in the wake of the atomic bomb?

Reagan's supply-side economics was based on the theory that __________.

"In the days ahead I will propose removing the roadblocks that have slowed our economy and reduced productivity. Steps will be taken aimed at restoring the balance between the various levels of government. Progress may be slow, measured in inches and feet, not miles, but we will progress. It is time to reawaken this industrial giant, to get government back within its means, and to lighten our punitive tax burden. And these will be our first priorities, and on these principles there will be no compromise." Ronald Reagan, First Inaugural Address, 1981.

What was a key component of the economic program described by Reagan in the speech above?

Ronald Reagan was elected President during a time of economic stress in America. Inheriting a struggling economy, Reagan formulated two new tax programs, the Economic Recovery Act of 1981 and the Tax Reform Act of 1986. Both Acts lowered the tax rates to give tax relief to all Americans (but were, admittedly, heavily skewed to tax relief for the exceptionally wealthy). The Economic Recovery Act of 1981 indexed tax rates for inflation. The Tax Reform Act of 1986 efficiently closed loopholes in the tax law, as well as lowering the tax rates again. President Ronald Reagan referred to the 1986 Act as "a second American Revolution for hope and opportunity." He believed that America’s economy, and the American taxpayer, were struggling under an imbalanced tax burden, unnecessary social spending, and excessive government regulation.

Reagan based his tax plan on what economic theory?

The major political parties in the United States, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, are well recognized to the voting public. There are 50 additional political parties in the United States, however, that are active and offer candidates for President. These are collectively known as Third Parties. Third Parties serve an important role in the United States political system. These parties, formed by individuals with particular interests, issues, and ideologies, force the major parties to address new issues and can influence an election by taking votes from both major party candidates during an election year. Third Parties are also formed when individuals, dissatisfied with the major parties, split off from the major party. This type of Third Party is also called a Splinter Party. Third Parties have influenced American elections since 1912. There have been many well-known Third Party Presidential candidates.

The election of 1992 saw a third party candidate run for the Presidency. This candidate was one of the most successful third party candidates since 1912. This candidate did not win any Electoral College votes but did win a respectable percentage of the popular vote. Who was this candidate, what percentage of the popular vote did he win and what was the name of his party?

Operation Desert Storm, also known as The Gulf War, began in 1991 as a response by the United States and Allied nations to Iraq’s attempt to conquer Kuwait. During its history, Kuwait had been a part of Iraq until 1923 when new borders were created.  It remained under British military protection until 1961. At that time, Kuwait joined the Arab League. Iraq protested this action claiming Kuwait’s status prior to 1923 made it part of Iraq’s territory. Kuwait formed its own Constitution in 1963 with the Emir and a group of ministers holding executive power. An assembly was also elected in the same year. In 1990, Saddam Hussein made the decision to regain the land lost and ordered his army to attack Kuwait. Hussein had threatened Kuwait for many years prior to the 1990 invasion; however, the extent of the invasion surprised the world. The Iraqi army rapidly seized all of Kuwait and was swiftly advancing towards Saudi Arabia. The United Nations and President George H.W. Bush demanded that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait. Iraq refused to withdraw from Kuwait and the Iraqi army continued to move southward. The result was Operation Desert Storm, which placed the largest number of American forces on foreign soil since the Viet Nam conflict.

What was the major concern of the world’s leaders regarding Iraq’s attack on Kuwait?