After Franklin D. Roosevelt’s sudden death at the beginning of his fourth presidential term, his Vice President, Harry Truman, took over the Oval Office. Truman faced a daunting task: World War Two, although winding down, was still very much raging and Roosevelt had been a truly formidable war leader. Nevertheless, Truman stepped up to the challenge and was quite successful: the Allied Army, under joint American-British-Soviet leadership, vanquished Nazi Germany in April 1945. Yet one last foe remained, for the Pacific front of the war was still ongoing and Japan, with its skilled army, air force, and navy, seemed untroubled by its German ally’s collapse. Many American generals urged Truman to invade the mainland Japanese island, in spite of the overwhelming losses that were inevitably certain to ensue. An alternate solution was placed before the President: the Manhattan Project, a top-secret scientific program commissioned by Roosevelt that had succeeded in developing the world’s first two nuclear bombs. Fearing further bloody engagements with the Japanese army and desiring a decisive end to the war in the Pacific, Truman authorized the use of these nuclear weapons. After issuing warnings to the Japanese government, which were disregarded as little more than bluffs, Truman ordered the nuclear bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The resulting total devastation did bring about the immediate surrender of the Japanese, just as Truman had wanted, but at a truly fearful and continuingly controversial cost.

George Washington (term: 1789-1797), one of the Founding Fathers of America, made several moves that established various roles and expectations of American Presidents. He enacted the idea of the President heading the military when Washington led the military in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. He also deeply respected law and the Constitution, so he gave Congress the authority that this new republic (new at the time) imbued it with. He refused to side with one political party.  Washington saw political parties as symptoms of fractures in the nation. 

Maybe most importantly, he left the office after eight years (two terms) because he believed in the freedom they had gained from the British monarchy’s rule. 

He did not make the Louisiana Purchase – that was done several years later by Thomas Jefferson.

John Adams (term: 1797-1801) restricted the rights of the press, non-citizens, and the right of free speech with the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws were enacted during a time in which war with France seemed more than likely to happen, creating varying levels of paranoia among different groups. These acts created a wave of unpopularity towards Adams and the Federalist Party.

This resulted in John Adams and the Federalist Party losing the election to Thomas Jefferson in 1801, and Adams serving only one term.

Prior to his presidency, James Madison (term: 1801-1809) contributed several articles promoting the new American government and explaining the nuances of our landmark Constitution. These articles are known as the Federalist Papers. 

Federalist #10 is a very important piece of writing. In it, Madison explains that factions have the ability to tear apart the country due to the proverbial line in the sand that a faction creates. Factions are known today as interest groups.

A strong enough faction with a large enough majority could take on powers that would challenge the government’s functions and erode civil rights and liberties of the minority. Whether it is over a religious principle, supporting leaders, or government policy, factions create a serious division between the people on either side of the argument. James Madison accepts that factions will exist, so his approach to balancing them is through governmental regulations (which would, ideally, protect the citizens from a faction becoming tyrannical).

In the first line of the excerpt above, note what Madison describes as the root cause for factions to rise: “the nature of man”.

Grover Cleveland (terms: 1885-1889; 1893-1897) was elected to two non-consecutive terms. In the 1889 election, he actually won the popular vote and lost the election. This has happened only a handful of times in Presidential elections.

William McKinley (term: 1897-1901) annexed Hawaii in 1898 after a push-back from Democrats and some Republicans. This expanded America’s reach in the Pacific (along with Spain handing over the Philippines to the United States). The push-back McKinley received in Congress meant that Hawaii would not become a state immediately. It would be decades until President Eisenhower made Hawaii America’s 50^th state.

Theodore Roosevelt (term: 1901-1910) was able to accomplish a great deal during his eight years in office. He is known as a nature-lover, essentially adding an adventurer mystique to his character. Roosevelt set up national parks, became the first sitting president to visit a foreign country, and helped to build the Panama Canal. He also clamped restrictions onto monopolies, which gained the nickname the “Trust Buster.”

Theodore Roosevelt did not enact the draft to bolster the military.

Woodrow Wilson (term: 1913-1921) outlined the ways to achieve international peace, which is titled the Fourteen Points. By the time the United States finally began fighting in World War I, the whole world was struggling to grasp the size, scope, and technological warfare involved in this massive battle.

Woodrow Wilson believed that the League of Nations was one of the answers to achieving world peace. This organization could act as sort of international police force, mediation court, and think-tank for peace.

Unfortunately, not only did the United States not join, but the organization failed to have any kind of power – due in part to the United States non-involvement.

Warren Harding (term: 1921-1923) and his administration are often labeled as a corrupt Presidency, especially because of the Teapot Dome scandal. This is regarded as the first modern example of publicly exposed corruption among oil companies. The scandal also exposed the backroom dealings where the Harding administration gave contracts to specific companies they were close with, leaving an indelible smudge on Harding’s reputation. Another term for the backroom dealings described here is crony capitalism.

Richard Nixon (term: 1969-1974) is known for the Watergate scandal, but he had many successes as President. He was often excellent with foreign affairs, and he was able to make China somewhat of an ally (and at the least not an enemy) during the Cold War. This landmark visit eventually opened up diplomatic relations between the United States and China in the late 1970s. The visit was preceded by several maneuvers from both China and the United States to ease tensions and improve relations.