Short-term memories are stored differently than long-term memories. Short-term memories generally include quick observations, and are only stored for 10-30 seconds. Short-term memories must be processed and stored as long-term memory in order to be accessible for any longer period of time.

Mood-congruent memory is when we feel a certain emotion, and then are able to access memories during which we felt similarly. For instance, if we are feeling frustrated in an intimate relationship we are more likely to remember another event during which we felt that same way.

Information only remains in our short-term memory for about 30 seconds. At the end of this time, this information is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

Mnemonic devices are memory aids that seek to improve recall of information. Chunking is a popular memory aid that involves organizing items into familiar, manageable units. 

Influential cognitive psychologist, George Miller, conducted a series of experiments in which it seemed that there is a "magical number seven," meaning that we can usually hold about seven items in our short-term memory at once. This has been supported by many studies, but also disputed among cognitive psychologists.

An episodic memory is a recollection of specific events, usually one's personal experiences. Remembering specific details is an example of semantic memory. Learning a skill, like tying a shoelace, is procedural memory. Mnemonic devices are a tool for remembering detailed information. Remembering words one doesn't understand through repetition is a prime example of rote memorization.

Riding a bike is a type of procedural memory, the memory of a participating in a physical or cognitive process. Procedural memories are implicit (implied) rather than explicit (conscious). 

Episodic memory is the memory for events in one's life (your 10th grade birthday party), and semantic memory is the memory for facts and knowledge (the first US president).

Priming is not a type of memory at all, but rather a method of affecting implicit memories in which exposure to one stimulus affects subsequent exposure to another stimulus. An example of priming might be that exposing someone to the word "rocket scientist" before taking a science test might make them get a higher score.

By including math problems in between memorization and recall, the experimenters were trying to avoid rehearsal-- the internal repetition of items to extend short term memory. 

As for the other answers, chunking is clustering smaller items into larger groups to aid in memory, blocking is the failure to remember something even though it's in the memory, reconsolidation is changes in the memory that can occur when a memory is recalled, and flashbulb memories are vivid memories of shocking events. 

Iconic and echoic memories are both types of very short-term sensory memories. Remember that iconic memory is visual and echoic memory is auditory; you can see an icon and hear an echo.

As for the answer choice about memory consolidation, consolidation is the process through which a memory becomes stable in the brain and does not have to do with iconic or echoic memories.  

Psychologists describe the human memory system as being information-processing models that compare human memory to computer operation systems. Therefore, using this analogy, in order for information to initially be processed into our brains, it must undergo the process known as encoding. This allows for information to be "coded" into our brains. 

Much evidence has been uncovered for psychologists to suggest there being three ways to learning: recall, recognition, and relearning. These three forms of learning feedback into the persisted learning that makes up memory and together make up a way to measure retention (a process known as storage). Therefore, these other options would be incorrect as they focus on another part of memory.