By including math problems in between memorization and recall, the experimenters were trying to avoid rehearsal-- the internal repetition of items to extend short term memory. 

As for the other answers, chunking is clustering smaller items into larger groups to aid in memory, blocking is the failure to remember something even though it's in the memory, reconsolidation is changes in the memory that can occur when a memory is recalled, and flashbulb memories are vivid memories of shocking events. 

Iconic and echoic memories are both types of very short-term sensory memories. Remember that iconic memory is visual and echoic memory is auditory; you can see an icon and hear an echo.

As for the answer choice about memory consolidation, consolidation is the process through which a memory becomes stable in the brain and does not have to do with iconic or echoic memories.  

Psychologists describe the human memory system as being information-processing models that compare human memory to computer operation systems. Therefore, using this analogy, in order for information to initially be processed into our brains, it must undergo the process known as encoding. This allows for information to be "coded" into our brains. 

Much evidence has been uncovered for psychologists to suggest there being three ways to learning: recall, recognition, and relearning. These three forms of learning feedback into the persisted learning that makes up memory and together make up a way to measure retention (a process known as storage). Therefore, these other options would be incorrect as they focus on another part of memory.

Much evidence has been uncovered for psychologists to suggest there being three ways to learning: recall, recognition, and relearning. These three forms of learning feedback into the persisted learning that makes up memory and together make up a way to measure retention (a process known as storage).

Recall is simply the retrieval of information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at a previous time. This is tested through a fill-in the blank tests, where the individual is challenged to recall information based on context. 

There are different levels of processing, such as shallow processing and deep processing. The first refers to processing information at a shallow, or basic, level. This would entail encoding a word's letters or maybe even how a word sounds. Deep processing entails semantic encoding. This means encoding based on the meaning of a word. This more complex level of encoding allows for better retention. 

Memory is learning that has persisted over time, allowing information to be stored and retrieved. Much research has been undertaken to allow psychologists to outline three types of learning that aid in memory formation: recall, recognition and relearning. These three processes feedback and provide psychologists with a way to measure retention (storage) of information that has been encoded into the brain. 

Recognition is the process by which an individual can identify things that he or she has previously learned. In the case of a multiple-choice exam, the individual is provided with all potential answers to the question. It becomes a matter of being able to recognize which option best answers the question. 

Psychologists have suggested that there are three types of learning that aid in memory formation: recall, recognition and relearning. These three processes feedback and provide psychologists with a way to measure retention (storage) of information that has been encoded into the brain. 

Relearning is the process by which we learn something for the second time. This learning process often occurs faster than the first time. For instance, covering new information for a unit in math may be challenging at first, but after a few weeks when it's time to take a test on the entire unit, it may be easier to digest that previously covered concept that was so challenging. The same process is encountered when studying for a cumulative final. This final covers information from the beginning of the semester that may have easily been forgotten, but the information may be quickly relearned when revisiting it. 

It may seem that recall would be an appropriate answer, however, this process requires retrieving information not currently in one's conscious memory. For example, this is exhibited during a fill-in-the-blank test. Given that the question merely asks for the reviewing of information, this answer would be incorrect, as we do not know the format of the test. The same may be applied for recognition. This is the process by which one identifies concepts already learned. While this may also seem like an appropriate answer choice, it is not as it is a process well exhibited through multiple-choice tests. Given the four or five options provided as an answer to a question, using recognition will allow one to recognize the potentially correct answer to the question. These processes do not entertain the idea of studying or reacquiring information.

The information-processing models are analogies that compare human memory to a computer's operations. In doing so, this analogy breaks the human memory system into three parts: encoding, storage, and retrieval. 

Encoding is the first part of the processing. It is during this stage that the information gets into our brains. In terms of a computer, this would be when information is "encoded" into the hard drive. This process is followed by storage. As the term indicates, this is when information is retained. This is synonymous with retention, which is measured by recall, recognition and relearning. The third process to this model is retrieval. Much like when we command a computer to do something and it retrieves the information that's been stored, this is when we call the information back out from storage. 

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain the memory forming process. This included in order:

1. Recording to-be remembered information as sensory memory. This is when external events causes a sensory input (stimulus). It's this fleeting occurrence that will be processed as a sensory memory. 

2. Information is then processed into short-term memory. At this time, the information is encoded into our brains through rehearsal. 

3. For future retrieval, information then moves into long-term memory.

This model has been updated since Atkinson and Shiffrin's time by other psychologists to now include working memory and automatic processing. Working memory is the middle ground for processing. It may be thought  to occur at the same time as short-term memory processing. At this time, information is merely actively (working) processed while short-term memory processes it to be sent to long-term memory. Automatic processing is the direct pathway by which external events are automatically processed into long-term memory.

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed a three-phase model to explain the memory forming process. This included in order:

1. Recording to-be remembered information as sensory memory. This is when external events causes a sensory input (stimulus). It's this fleeting occurrence that will be processed as a sensory memory. 

2. Information is then processed into short-term memory. At this time, the information is encoded into our brains through rehearsal. 

3. For future retrieval, information then moves into long-term memory.

This model has been updated since Atkinson and Shiffrin's time by other psychologists to now include working memory and automatic processing. Working memory is the middle ground for processing. It may be thought  to occur at the same time as short-term memory processing. At this time, information is merely actively (working) processed while short-term memory processes it to be sent to long-term memory. Automatic processing is the direct pathway by which external events are automatically processed into long-term memory.