Resolving the conflict of autonomy vs. shame is the developmental task of the second stage of Erik Erikson's 8-stage model of psychosocial development. Typically, it is during this stage that a developing child learns to toilet train and to get dressed. Erikson described this stage as the time in which a sense of personal control over physical tasks was developed. If conquered successfully, the fruits of this stage are feelings of autonomy. The other answers are all stages in Erikson's model, but not his second stage.

In Maslow's proposed a hierarchy of needs, the need to become self-actualized was at the pinnacle of the hierarchy. Self-actualization can be defined as the state in which a person has reached his personal highest level of psychological health and ability. Another way of stating this is reaching one's full growth potential.  Maslow made new distinctions between Eastern and Western cultures, but did imply that those of the more elite classes would be more likely to attain this status but only fleetingly.

The characteristics of ambivalent attachment in young children include not exploring new places, are distressed when separated from the primary care giver, are not comforted or seem angry when they are reunited with the parent, and are clingy.

The characteristics of avoidant attachment in young children include being unresponsive to a parent when they try to interact, they may react positively to strangers instead of having separation anxiety, they are slow to acknowledge their parent when they leave and return, and they do not cling to the parent when they are being held.

The characteristics of secure attachment in young children include exploring new places but using their parent as a secure base, having separation anxiety, having stranger anxiety, and being comforted by their parent’s return.

Developmental psychology studies changes throughout a person’s entire lifespan. This includes the physical, social, and cognitive developments and changes observed in a person. 

Stranger anxiety is a characteristic of secure attachment and usually begins around 8 months of age. It is more commonly described as a fear of strangers.

Audrey is currently in the formal operational stage, whereas Aaron is currently in the concrete operational stage. Children in the concrete operational stage such as Aaron fixate on the physical properties of objects and what they know to be true based on past experiences. In contrast, adolescents can think and reason more abstractly even when given hypothetical scenarios or specific rules to follow. So, when both Audrey and Aaron are asked about the glass, Audrey was able to follow the rule, but Aaron focused on the concrete validity of the rule; therefore, the children would respond in the following manner: “Audrey would say the glass broke, whereas Aaron would say the glass did not break.”

The ability to conserve physical properties first appears during middle childhood during the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11 approximately), not during the formal operational stage. Adolescents are first able to engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning and propositional thought during the formal operational stage. Adolescents are also idealistic, which can be a gain or limitation cognitive ability. 

According to James Marcia's theory of identity statuses, Randall has made a commitment without exploring any additional options in terms of his field of study and career (i.e. identity foreclosure). Moratorium is when an individual is actively exploring an identity but has yet to commit. Achievement is when one has actively explored an identity and made a final decision. Diffusion is when one is indifferent and does not explore or commit to any one identity.