The above quote, from evangelist Charles Finney, discusses a "Revival of Religion." Revivals of Religion were the key feature of the Second Great Awakening, a widespread religious fervor that spread throughout America in the first decades of the nineteenth century. The Second Great Awakening featured many religious revivals and saw new religions pop up all over the country. The Second Great Awakening made the nation much more religious by the start of the Civil War.

Transcendentalism, characterized by authors such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, was an intellectual reaction to Enlightenment values in the early nineteenth century. Transcendentalists did not believe reason and logic alone were sufficient to understand nature and the world. Instead, transcendentalists sought to go out in nature, understand their emotions, and reflect on those feelings.

Beginning in the late 1820s, the Transcendentalist movement focused on establishing belief and principles through inner, individual spiritual experience. It opposed established and organized religion in favor of an individualized outlook. Its leading proponents were Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

The Transcendentalism movement arose in the first half of the nineteenth century in opposition to the state of American politics and society at the time. Transcendentalists believe in the core goodness of people, nature, and people in nature. They also opposed organized religion, which they felt corrupted the individual and prevented man from attuning himself to nature. Of these five, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson are the two most famous for their Transcendentalist beliefs. Walt Whitman and Margaret Fuller were both also keen writers in support of the Transcendentalist cause. Nathaniel Hawthorne (author of The Scarlet Letter), however, was a very well known anti-Transcendentalist. His work focused on the deplorable nature of humans and the impious and impure nature of the human spirit. 

Again, this is another straightforward vocabulary question. Manifest destiny was the belief that Americans had a culture of superior values and thus had a quasi-divine mandate to spread across the continent and bring American culture and values to all—willing or not. “A jingoistic cry . . .” may have been a fairly tempting answer due to the buzzwords “jingoistic” and “conscience Whigs,” but if you remember your history (hopefully you do!) you’ll recall that conscience Whigs were against things like the Mexican-American War, and other [in]direct products of manifest destiny.

Although the majority of the passage could be referring to any one of a number of disenfranchised groups in American history. The opening line is very similar in character to that of the Declaration of Independence. The only manner in which it differs is to include both men and women as being endowed with certain inalienable rights; therefore, we can confidently suppose that it was written on behalf of women. The quote is taken from Declaration of Sentiments, adopted by the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848—the proscribed purposed of which was to gain the complete enfranchisement for women in the United States.