Sugar (glucose) and oxygen are the two products of photosynthesis. Methane is a gas consisting of carbon and hydrogen. ATP is the energy produced in the organelle mitochondria. Ethyl alcohol is the active substance in beer and wine that causes intoxication if too much is consumed.

An anabolic pathway is a pathway in which smaller molecules are combined to form larger ones. This type of pathway usually requires energy to complete the combinations required. Photosynthesis is an example of this, because it combines carbon dioxide molecules to form glucose. The rest of the listed processes are catabolic pathways.

The key characteristic of the C₄ pathway is that is produces oxaloacetate and four-carbon sugars from carbon dioxide, compared to the Calvin cycle of most plants, which generates glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and three-carbon sugars.

The C₄ pathway fixes carbon dioxide into four-carbon compounds, thus the name. Pores on the plant called stomata regulate how much carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water enter and leave the plant and are usually partially closed during the hottest part of the day to conserve water. This yields a low carbon dioxide level and high oxygen level, which inhibits carbon fixation by the Calvin cycle. Plants that use the C₄ pathway have an enzyme that can efficiently fix carbon to four-carbon compounds when the carbon dioxide level is low. The four-carbon compounds are then transported to other cells, where carbon dioxide is released and can enter the Calvin cycle.

Plants that use the C₄ pathway are better adapted to hot and dry conditions, as they can fix carbon with less loss of water. Examples of C₄ plants are corn and crabgrass.

Phagocytosis is the event of a cell engulfing particular matter from outside the cell and bringing it into the cell. Macrophages are the most prominent phagocytic cells, and help to eliminate pathogens and bacteria through phagocytosis.

Pinocytosis allows extracellular fluid to enter the cell, using invaginations on the cell membrane to create vesicles. Exocytosis involves vesicles leaving the cell, not entering. Diffusion is the passive transport of substances across the membrane and does not involve vesicles.

Exocytosis is a process by which the cell packages content and secretes it from the cell in a vesicle. Hormones, which act on cells far away from where they are produced, will travel out of the cell to reach their target tissues and organs. Vesicles of hormones will fuse with the membrane of the cell and release the hormone into the blood for transport.

DNA, RNA, and cytoplasmic constituents do not leave the cell and would not be exocytosed. Integral membrane proteins are placed in the membrane via vesicle fusion, but are not exocytosed in the process.

There are two topologically different structures inside the cell: the lumen and the cytosol. Lumen consists of the inside of the organelles and the inside of vesicles. Cytosol consists of the fluid that surrounds the organelles.

The questions states that particle A undergoes endocytosis. In endocytosis particles from outside of the cell are brought to the inside of the cell by vesicles that bud off from the cell membrane. These vesicles deliver the particles to the target organelle. The vesicles fuse with the organelle’s membrane and the particles are released into the lumen of the organelle. These particles never make contact with the cytosol side of the cell; therefore, the best answer is that particle A is destined for one of the membrane-bound organelles because it is being transported via a vesicle. This mechanism is also relevant for exocytosis. Secretory vesicles carry contents from inside the cell to the outside, without letting the contents touch the cytosol.

To answer this question you need to know the sequence of events that a protein goes through during and after synthesis.

The first step is the synthesis of protein. This occurs when mRNA is translated to protein by ribosomes. The first event is statement 2.

After its synthesis, the protein is transported to the rough endoplasmic reticulum where it is processed. This processing involves removal of unwanted amino acid sequences, such as signal sequences. The second event is statement 4.

From the rough endoplasmic reticulum the protein is transported to Golgi apparatus where it is further processed and packaged. This next event is statement 1.

The last step is the delivery of protein to the cell membrane (statement 3). Once the protein reaches the cell membrane it can either be exported to the outside (exocytosis) or become part of the membrane (integral and peripheral membrane proteins). Remember that the protein is transported by vesicles and that it never makes contact with the cytosol.

Endocytosis is the process of a cell receiving the contents of a vesicle. The vesicle will fuse with the cell membrane and release its contents into the cytoplasm for cellular use.

In contrast, exocytosis is the release of compounds from a cell via vesicle transport. Vesicles are formed at the Golgi apparatus and transported through the cytoplasm to fuse with the cell membrane, where the contents are released into the extracellular space. Transport vesicles can also be formed to contain and carry molecules away from the cell.

The plasma membrane engulfing particles to enter the cell would be an example of pinocytosis, and the conversion of light and carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and oxygen is the process of photosynthesis.

The correct answer is phagocytosis. Phagocytosis involves the engulfing of an external particle to form a phagosome (a vesicle inside the cell). This process differs from pinocytosis in that pinocyotsis refers to the engulfing of liquids from the environment. Phagocytosis is a specific form of endocytosis; thus, phagocytosis is the better answer as endocyotsis can also describe processes such as pinocytosis. Diffusion and Active Transport both do not relate to the phenomenon as no concentration gradient is in place. 

Ligands bind to receptors, which cause conformational changes and various effects on the cell. Integral membrane proteins span the lipid bilayer. These proteins commonly act as receptors and bind to ligands to produce conformation changes. They cannot leave the lipid bilayer, and thus are never ligands that can bind to other receptors.

Ligands are generally small ions or molecules, such as glucose or triglycerides. Calcium ions act as second messenger ligands in signal transduction. Steroid hormones, like testosterone, bind to proteins in the nucleus to alter transcription patterns. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on dendrites to cause action potential propagation. Inhibitors can bind to receptors to block other ligands from interacting.