Passage 1:

The penny has long outlived its usefulness in the monetary system and should be removed from use. Pennies cost more to produce than the value they represent. In fact, it costs taxpayers nearly two cents to produce and distribute every one cent penny.

Additionally, the penny does not represent the real level of purchasing power. Go to the corner store today and ask for the “penny candy,” and you might be routed to a row of treats, but you’re unlikely to find anything for purchase for under a quarter.

On top of the cost and lack of benefit, pennies are also heavy for their value, so much so that many don’t even care to keep the pennies they receive in change. 11% of people report that they would rather throw a penny away than carry it around with them, and over $62 million dollars in coins are thrown out annually - most of them pennies.

Whether it’s at the grocery register or at the bank, everyone who handles pennies agrees that they are excessively time-consuming to process. Even most charities would rather do without the pennies they receive! It’s time we let go of this costly antiquity and get rid of the penny once and for all!

Passage 2:

The penny is a sacred historic symbol in America and should be respected for its historical value. Over half of Americans are in favor of keeping the penny, and many fear the trend that eliminating low-value currency sets. “Rounding tax,” or the inclination for businesses to round prices up to the nearest unit of change available, could have an impact on consumers, and as inflation continues, the nickel, the dime, and even the quarter could follow!

Not only does the penny help keep costs low, but it would also be costly to take out of commission effectively. The penny is also a powerful historical tribute to Abraham Lincoln, who has appeared on the penny’s face since 1909.

The penny represents far more than its one-cent value and eliminating it would take a toll on the history it represents and the majority of citizens who seek to keep it in commission.

In the context of the first paragraph of Passage 1, “produce” most nearly means

Passage 1:

The penny has long outlived its usefulness in the monetary system and should be removed from use. Pennies cost more to produce than the value they represent. In fact, it costs taxpayers nearly two cents to produce and distribute every one cent penny.

Additionally, the penny does not represent the real level of purchasing power. Go to the corner store today and ask for the “penny candy,” and you might be routed to a row of treats, but you’re unlikely to find anything for purchase for under a quarter.

On top of the cost and lack of benefit, pennies are also heavy for their value, so much so that many don’t even care to keep the pennies they receive in change. 11% of people report that they would rather throw a penny away than carry it around with them, and over $62 million dollars in coins are thrown out annually - most of them pennies.

Whether it’s at the grocery register or at the bank, everyone who handles pennies agrees that they are excessively time-consuming to process. Even most charities would rather do without the pennies they receive! It’s time we let go of this costly antiquity and get rid of the penny once and for all!

Passage 2:

The penny is a sacred historic symbol in America and should be respected for its historical value. Over half of Americans are in favor of keeping the penny, and many fear the trend that eliminating low-value currency sets. “Rounding tax,” or the inclination for businesses to round prices up to the nearest unit of change available, could have an impact on consumers, and as inflation continues, the nickel, the dime, and even the quarter could follow!

Not only does the penny help keep costs low, but it would also be costly to take out of commission effectively. The penny is also a powerful historical tribute to Abraham Lincoln, who has appeared on the penny’s face since 1909.

The penny represents far more than its one-cent value and eliminating it would take a toll on the history it represents and the majority of citizens who seek to keep it in commission.

In the context of the second paragraph of Passage 2, “tribute” most nearly means

Passage 1:

Graffiti - the public drawings and paintings that often cover surfaces of walls and other public structures - are often written off as an act of vandalism. However, the time has finally come when we begin to recognize graffiti for the art form it truly is.

Artists such as Banksy have shown us that graffiti can be a way to showcase not only one’s talent in the visual arts but also one’s political and social causes and stances. Some cities have even come to embrace graffiti to such an extent that they have commissioned works of art from these artists on the facades of public buildings.

Although graffiti began as an act of anarchy and rebellion, its contributions to society and the communities impacted by the art have seen positive responses that far outweigh the negatives. Graffiti is no longer a costly nuisance that should be immediately covered or removed, it has instead flourished to become an entirely new and unique art form with talent and renown that will eventually come to match the household names “Picasso” and “Michaelangelo” in stature.

Passage 2:

Though some might idolize graffiti as an act of admirable rebellion, this “art” causes nothing but negative impacts on its community. Those who would vandalize their streets and neighborhoods are no friend to the community. Instead, these criminals deface properties, decrease home values, and leave the community looking less pristine and cared for.

Such vandals also disregard the work put in by maintenance workers cleaning up after their messes and government officials attempting to create a better community for their citizens. While the work created by graffiti “artists” can sometimes be visually impressive, this does not outweigh the fact that what they have created is not art, but a crime against the community.

Popular graffiti “artists” auctioning work off for thousands of dollars apiece only perpetuate this trend. It is high time we put a stop to these criminal activities rather than glorifying them and allow true artists who follow city policies and stick to canvas or sculpture their due respect.

In the context of Passage 1, facades most nearly means

Passage 1:

Graffiti - the public drawings and paintings that often cover surfaces of walls and other public structures - are often written off as an act of vandalism. However, the time has finally come when we begin to recognize graffiti for the art form it truly is.

Artists such as Banksy have shown us that graffiti can be a way to showcase not only one’s talent in the visual arts but also one’s political and social causes and stances. Some cities have even come to embrace graffiti to such an extent that they have commissioned works of art from these artists on the facades of public buildings.

Although graffiti began as an act of anarchy and rebellion, its contributions to society and the communities impacted by the art have seen positive responses that far outweigh the negatives. Graffiti is no longer a costly nuisance that should be immediately covered or removed, it has instead flourished to become an entirely new and unique art form with talent and renown that will eventually come to match the household names “Picasso” and “Michaelangelo” in stature.

Passage 2:

Though some might idolize graffiti as an act of admirable rebellion, this “art” causes nothing but negative impacts on its community. Those who would vandalize their streets and neighborhoods are no friend to the community. Instead, these criminals deface properties, decrease home values, and leave the community looking less pristine and cared for.

Such vandals also disregard the work put in by maintenance workers cleaning up after their messes and government officials attempting to create a better community for their citizens. While the work created by graffiti “artists” can sometimes be visually impressive, this does not outweigh the fact that what they have created is not art, but a crime against the community.

Popular graffiti “artists” auctioning work off for thousands of dollars apiece only perpetuate this trend. It is high time we put a stop to these criminal activities rather than glorifying them and allow true artists who follow city policies and stick to canvas or sculpture their due respect.

In the context of Passage 2, idolize most nearly means

The animal kingdom is made up of creatures of all shapes, sizes, and colors. While we may see color as little more than decoration, animals use their colors in three key ways: to hide, to deceive, and to attract.

The first purpose of color in the animal kingdom, to hide, is perhaps the most commonly known. Animals use a variety of colorations to camouflage themselves or to obscure their shapes from predators. For instance, the owl is often colored and patterned to match the bark of its tree of choice to better blend into its surroundings when perched. The leafy seadragon, an aquatic example of a species employing color to hide, uses its blue-green coloration and leaf-like protrusions to blend into the aquatic foliage of its ecosystem. But perhaps no species is better known for its ability to use color to hide than the chameleon, which can change color to blend into its surroundings. In fact, the chameleon is so well-known for this trait that its name has become a term that is now generally used to refer to one who “changes to fit/blend in.”

Deception is the second function of color in animals. Animals have been known to use their colors and patterns to deceive potential predators and prey. The hemeroplanes triptolemus, otherwise known as the aptly named “snake mimic caterpillar,” uses large, eye-like colorations on its underbelly to flip over and appear snake-like and thus more intimidating to predators. The orchid mantis is another fascinating example of deception in the animal kingdom. Brightly colored in hues of pink and purple, the mantis contorts itself to appear flower-like as it awaits its prey. When pollinators come around expecting a flower to feed on, they are in for a surprise, as the mantis sits ready to strike.

Animals don’t always use their colors to become less pronounced or to hide their true forms from predators or prey. They can also use colors to attract. Bright colorations in animals are used to both attract mates, and to attract attention from and send a warning to potential predators. Many species of birds are known to use bright colorations to attract potential female mates. Additionally, poisonous creatures might be seen with bright colorations and patterns to warn potential predators to leave them be! In fact, many non-poisonous animals have taken this “attract attention” purpose and melded it with “deception” to use their bright coloration to appear poisonous and thus dangerous to predators - even though they are completely harmless!

When it comes to animal colorations, there’s more than meets the eye. With bright colors to attract a mate or ward off a foe, patterns to obscure one’s form and markings that can make even the most harmless bug look like a terrifying creature, animals use color in many ways to better their chances of survival in the wild.

In the context of the passage, aptly most closely means

The animal kingdom is made up of creatures of all shapes, sizes, and colors. While we may see color as little more than decoration, animals use their colors in three key ways: to hide, to deceive, and to attract.

The first purpose of color in the animal kingdom, to hide, is perhaps the most commonly known. Animals use a variety of colorations to camouflage themselves or to obscure their shapes from predators. For instance, the owl is often colored and patterned to match the bark of its tree of choice to better blend into its surroundings when perched. The leafy seadragon, an aquatic example of a species employing color to hide, uses its blue-green coloration and leaf-like protrusions to blend into the aquatic foliage of its ecosystem. But perhaps no species is better known for its ability to use color to hide than the chameleon, which can change color to blend into its surroundings. In fact, the chameleon is so well-known for this trait that its name has become a term that is now generally used to refer to one who “changes to fit/blend in.”

Deception is the second function of color in animals. Animals have been known to use their colors and patterns to deceive potential predators and prey. The hemeroplanes triptolemus, otherwise known as the aptly named “snake mimic caterpillar,” uses large, eye-like colorations on its underbelly to flip over and appear snake-like and thus more intimidating to predators. The orchid mantis is another fascinating example of deception in the animal kingdom. Brightly colored in hues of pink and purple, the mantis contorts itself to appear flower-like as it awaits its prey. When pollinators come around expecting a flower to feed on, they are in for a surprise, as the mantis sits ready to strike.

Animals don’t always use their colors to become less pronounced or to hide their true forms from predators or prey. They can also use colors to attract. Bright colorations in animals are used to both attract mates, and to attract attention from and send a warning to potential predators. Many species of birds are known to use bright colorations to attract potential female mates. Additionally, poisonous creatures might be seen with bright colorations and patterns to warn potential predators to leave them be! In fact, many non-poisonous animals have taken this “attract attention” purpose and melded it with “deception” to use their bright coloration to appear poisonous and thus dangerous to predators - even though they are completely harmless!

When it comes to animal colorations, there’s more than meets the eye. With bright colors to attract a mate or ward off a foe, patterns to obscure one’s form and markings that can make even the most harmless bug look like a terrifying creature, animals use color in many ways to better their chances of survival in the wild.

In the context of the passage, melded most closely means

You likely hear the name “Napoleon Bonaparte” and immediately think of the short in stature and short in temper French emperor. But have you heard about his most embarrassing surrender? No, not Waterloo! Not Laon or the battle of La Rothiere either! Napoleon's most laughable defeat came well before his loss at Waterloo, in the summer of 1807.

Despite Napoleon's great renown as a brilliant military leader, he once retreated frantically from an army of ….bunnies! You heard that right! Shortly after Napoleon’s Treaties of Tilsit was penned, the emperor planned to celebrate with his fellow military men the best way he knew how - a hunt! Napoleon ordered the chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, to organize an extravagant rabbit hunt for Napoleon and his men.

Not to be outdone, Berthier collected what was estimated to be between hundreds and thousands of rabbits for the hunt. However, while Berthier assumed that, like wild rabbits, these village-raised rabbits would scurry at the sight of Napoleon and his men, exactly the opposite was true. When the day came and the hunting party was ready for the chase, the bunnies were released. But instead of running for the woods, the swarm of rabbits came straight for Napoleon and his men. Though the men initially attempted to fight back, they were overwhelmed by the horde and fled to their coaches on a panicked retreat. It was not until the coaches sped away, rabbits still hopping aboard even as they attempted to retreat, that Napoleon was able to escape the furry army.

Embarrassed in front of the military peers and subordinates who once respected him, Napoleon fled home from a battle he never anticipated, and one he would never fully recover from the battle of the bunnies.

Which of the following would be the least appropriate alternative to the term “extravagant” in paragraph two?

You likely hear the name “Napoleon Bonaparte” and immediately think of the short in stature and short in temper French emperor. But have you heard about his most embarrassing surrender? No, not Waterloo! Not Laon or the battle of La Rothiere either! Napoleon's most laughable defeat came well before his loss at Waterloo, in the summer of 1807.

Despite Napoleon's great renown as a brilliant military leader, he once retreated frantically from an army of ….bunnies! You heard that right! Shortly after Napoleon’s Treaties of Tilsit was penned, the emperor planned to celebrate with his fellow military men the best way he knew how - a hunt! Napoleon ordered the chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, to organize an extravagant rabbit hunt for Napoleon and his men.

Not to be outdone, Berthier collected what was estimated to be between hundreds and thousands of rabbits for the hunt. However, while Berthier assumed that, like wild rabbits, these village-raised rabbits would scurry at the sight of Napoleon and his men, exactly the opposite was true. When the day came and the hunting party was ready for the chase, the bunnies were released. But instead of running for the woods, the swarm of rabbits came straight for Napoleon and his men. Though the men initially attempted to fight back, they were overwhelmed by the horde and fled to their coaches on a panicked retreat. It was not until the coaches sped away, rabbits still hopping aboard even as they attempted to retreat, that Napoleon was able to escape the furry army.

Embarrassed in front of the military peers and subordinates who once respected him, Napoleon fled home from a battle he never anticipated, and one he would never fully recover from the battle of the bunnies.

Which of the following would be the most appropriate alternative to the term “frantically” in paragraph two?

“Stone Trees”

Have you ever seen a stone tree? While the idea of a stone tree may sound fantastic, fallen trees can turn to stone in very specific circumstances, producing what scientists call “petrified wood.” “Petra” means stone in ancient Greek, so something “petrified” has been turned to stone. You may have heard the word “petrified” used to describe someone so scared that they have frozen as if turned to stone, but scientists use the word literally to refer to actual stone. Petrified trees are stone trees, not scared trees!

A Type of Fossil

Like ancient skeletons of dinosaurs and other organisms preserved in the earth, petrified wood is a type of fossil; however, there is a big difference between petrified wood and most fossils. Most fossils are imprints of creatures or partial remains of them, such as their skeletons. In contrast, the process of petrification recreates an entire preserved tree in stone. It’s very cool to see a petrified tree close-up, because it is still precisely life-size; you can get an idea of how big the tree was when it was alive, and even see individual tree cells that have been preserved. You can even count the tree rings in some petrified trees and estimate how old the tree grew to be before it was petrified.

From Tree to Stone

In order for a tree to become petrified wood, it must have died and been buried a very long time ago. This has to have happened in a specific environment, though, or petrified wood would not be so rare. The tree has to be buried in such a way that oxygen cannot get to its bark and wood. If oxygen can get to the tree, it will rot instead of turn to stone. 

The environment has to have two more specific characteristics to produce petrified wood: there has to be water in the ground around the tree, and that water has to contain minerals. If mineral-containing water is present, water will go into and out of the tree’s cells and, over time, the minerals in the water will accumulate in the tree’s cells. When the tree’s cells eventually decay, the minerals are left. Petrified wood can be a rainbow of different colors, with each color corresponding to different elements in the tree’s preserving environment that affect the color of the minerals that form its stone.

Petrified wood is found all over the world, and there are even entire forests of petrified trees that you can travel to go see today. One national park in the United States, Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona, is famous for its many petrified trees. The next time you see a tree, remember, after a few million years in the right environment, it could turn to stone!

Passage 2: “The Petrified Forest of Arizona” by E.A. J. Seddon, Associate Editor, Southern Division in The Mountain States Monitor, September 1918.

The Petrified Forest of Arizona is an area covered with the fossil remains of prehistoric trees. The name “Petrified Forest” is somewhat of a misnomer: the word “forest” suggests standing trees, but these trees fell over long ago and have been preserved in stone. At one time, they formed part of a forest of gigantic trees. They proudly reared their heads above the surrounding country, but they were conquered and laid low by some force of nature.

Then began the process of embalming and preserving these fallen monarchs. They were buried thousands of feet beneath the bottom of an inland sea. This was a vast pickling vat where the wood was slowly converted into living gems. We can tell this because volcanic cones and mineral springs still exist in the area. 

Water containing minerals slowly forced its way into the trunks and limbs and roots of the fallen monarchs under a terrific pressure. Eventually, the woody material was gradually replaced by silica, a type of rock. Iron oxides were present in the silica. These oxides created brilliant and beautiful brown, yellow, and red colors in the rock. 

Eventually, the sediment containing the petrified trees was thrown up from nature’s subterranean chemical laboratory. The wrappings of the dead monarchs were slowly washed away by erosion and corrosion. Then the glorious sun shone upon the trees once again. They were no longer rulers of the kingdom of flora, but preserved for all time as agate, jasper, opal, and other forms of silica.

About which of the following points do the passages present the most different interpretations?

“Stone Trees”

Have you ever seen a stone tree? While the idea of a stone tree may sound fantastic, fallen trees can turn to stone in very specific circumstances, producing what scientists call “petrified wood.” “Petra” means stone in ancient Greek, so something “petrified” has been turned to stone. You may have heard the word “petrified” used to describe someone so scared that they have frozen as if turned to stone, but scientists use the word literally to refer to actual stone. Petrified trees are stone trees, not scared trees!

A Type of Fossil

Like ancient skeletons of dinosaurs and other organisms preserved in the earth, petrified wood is a type of fossil; however, there is a big difference between petrified wood and most fossils. Most fossils are imprints of creatures or partial remains of them, such as their skeletons. In contrast, the process of petrification recreates an entire preserved tree in stone. It’s very cool to see a petrified tree close-up, because it is still precisely life-size; you can get an idea of how big the tree was when it was alive, and even see individual tree cells that have been preserved. You can even count the tree rings in some petrified trees and estimate how old the tree grew to be before it was petrified.

From Tree to Stone

In order for a tree to become petrified wood, it must have died and been buried a very long time ago. This has to have happened in a specific environment, though, or petrified wood would not be so rare. The tree has to be buried in such a way that oxygen cannot get to its bark and wood. If oxygen can get to the tree, it will rot instead of turn to stone. 

The environment has to have two more specific characteristics to produce petrified wood: there has to be water in the ground around the tree, and that water has to contain minerals. If mineral-containing water is present, water will go into and out of the tree’s cells and, over time, the minerals in the water will accumulate in the tree’s cells. When the tree’s cells eventually decay, the minerals are left. Petrified wood can be a rainbow of different colors, with each color corresponding to different elements in the tree’s preserving environment that affect the color of the minerals that form its stone.

Petrified wood is found all over the world, and there are even entire forests of petrified trees that you can travel to go see today. One national park in the United States, Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona, is famous for its many petrified trees. The next time you see a tree, remember, after a few million years in the right environment, it could turn to stone!

Passage 2: “The Petrified Forest of Arizona” by E.A. J. Seddon, Associate Editor, Southern Division in The Mountain States Monitor, September 1918.

The Petrified Forest of Arizona is an area covered with the fossil remains of prehistoric trees. The name “Petrified Forest” is somewhat of a misnomer: the word “forest” suggests standing trees, but these trees fell over long ago and have been preserved in stone. At one time, they formed part of a forest of gigantic trees. They proudly reared their heads above the surrounding country, but they were conquered and laid low by some force of nature.

Then began the process of embalming and preserving these fallen monarchs. They were buried thousands of feet beneath the bottom of an inland sea. This was a vast pickling vat where the wood was slowly converted into living gems. We can tell this because volcanic cones and mineral springs still exist in the area. 

Water containing minerals slowly forced its way into the trunks and limbs and roots of the fallen monarchs under a terrific pressure. Eventually, the woody material was gradually replaced by silica, a type of rock. Iron oxides were present in the silica. These oxides created brilliant and beautiful brown, yellow, and red colors in the rock. 

Eventually, the sediment containing the petrified trees was thrown up from nature’s subterranean chemical laboratory. The wrappings of the dead monarchs were slowly washed away by erosion and corrosion. Then the glorious sun shone upon the trees once again. They were no longer rulers of the kingdom of flora, but preserved for all time as agate, jasper, opal, and other forms of silica.

A friend of yours knows a lot about different types of rocks and is interested in learning about petrified wood. You know your friend would be most interested in the passage that includes the most detailed discussion of the types of rocks that form petrified wood. Which passage would you recommend your friend read, and why?