“Stone Trees”

Have you ever seen a stone tree? While the idea of a stone tree may sound fantastic, fallen trees can turn to stone in very specific circumstances, producing what scientists call “petrified wood.” “Petra” means stone in ancient Greek, so something “petrified” has been turned to stone. You may have heard the word “petrified” used to describe someone so scared that they have frozen as if turned to stone, but scientists use the word literally to refer to actual stone. Petrified trees are stone trees, not scared trees!

A Type of Fossil

Like ancient skeletons of dinosaurs and other organisms preserved in the earth, petrified wood is a type of fossil; however, there is a big difference between petrified wood and most fossils. Most fossils are imprints of creatures or partial remains of them, such as their skeletons. In contrast, the process of petrification recreates an entire preserved tree in stone. It’s very cool to see a petrified tree close-up, because it is still precisely life-size; you can get an idea of how big the tree was when it was alive, and even see individual tree cells that have been preserved. You can even count the tree rings in some petrified trees and estimate how old the tree grew to be before it was petrified.

From Tree to Stone

In order for a tree to become petrified wood, it must have died and been buried a very long time ago. This has to have happened in a specific environment, though, or petrified wood would not be so rare. The tree has to be buried in such a way that oxygen cannot get to its bark and wood. If oxygen can get to the tree, it will rot instead of turn to stone. 

The environment has to have two more specific characteristics to produce petrified wood: there has to be water in the ground around the tree, and that water has to contain minerals. If mineral-containing water is present, water will go into and out of the tree’s cells and, over time, the minerals in the water will accumulate in the tree’s cells. When the tree’s cells eventually decay, the minerals are left. Petrified wood can be a rainbow of different colors, with each color corresponding to different elements in the tree’s preserving environment that affect the color of the minerals that form its stone.

Petrified wood is found all over the world, and there are even entire forests of petrified trees that you can travel to go see today. One national park in the United States, Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona, is famous for its many petrified trees. The next time you see a tree, remember, after a few million years in the right environment, it could turn to stone!

In what way does petrified wood differ from dinosaur fossils?

You likely hear the name “Napoleon Bonaparte” and immediately think of the short in stature and short in temper French emperor. But have you heard about his most embarrassing surrender? No, not Waterloo! Not Laon or the battle of La Rothiere either! Napoleon's most laughable defeat came well before his loss at Waterloo, in the summer of 1807.

Despite Napoleon's great renown as a brilliant military leader, he once retreated frantically from an army of ….bunnies! You heard that right! Shortly after Napoleon’s Treaties of Tilsit was penned, the emperor planned to celebrate with his fellow military men the best way he knew how - a hunt! Napoleon ordered the chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, to organize an extravagant rabbit hunt for Napoleon and his men.

Not to be outdone, Berthier collected what was estimated to be between hundreds and thousands of rabbits for the hunt. However, while Berthier assumed that, like wild rabbits, these village-raised rabbits would scurry at the sight of Napoleon and his men, exactly the opposite was true. When the day came and the hunting party was ready for the chase, the bunnies were released. But instead of running for the woods, the swarm of rabbits came straight for Napoleon and his men. Though the men initially attempted to fight back, they were overwhelmed by the hoard and fled to their coaches on a panicked retreat. It was not until the coaches sped away, rabbits still hopping aboard even as they attempted to retreat, that Napoleon was able to escape the furry army.

Embarrassed in front of the military peers and subordinates who once respected him, Napoleon fled home from a battle he never anticipated, and one he would never fully recover from the battle of the bunnies.

According to the context of the passage, “Waterloo,” “Laon“ and “La Rothiere” are

You likely hear the name “Napoleon Bonaparte” and immediately think of the short in stature and short in temper French emperor. But have you heard about his most embarrassing surrender? No, not Waterloo! Not Laon or the battle of La Rothiere either! Napoleon's most laughable defeat came well before his loss at Waterloo, in the summer of 1807.

Despite Napoleon's great renown as a brilliant military leader, he once retreated frantically from an army of ….bunnies! You heard that right! Shortly after Napoleon’s Treaties of Tilsit was penned, the emperor planned to celebrate with his fellow military men the best way he knew how - a hunt! Napoleon ordered the chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, to organize an extravagant rabbit hunt for Napoleon and his men.

Not to be outdone, Berthier collected what was estimated to be between hundreds and thousands of rabbits for the hunt. However, while Berthier assumed that, like wild rabbits, these village-raised rabbits would scurry at the sight of Napoleon and his men, exactly the opposite was true. When the day came and the hunting party was ready for the chase, the bunnies were released. But instead of running for the woods, the swarm of rabbits came straight for Napoleon and his men. Though the men initially attempted to fight back, they were overwhelmed by the hoard and fled to their coaches on a panicked retreat. It was not until the coaches sped away, rabbits still hopping aboard even as they attempted to retreat, that Napoleon was able to escape the furry army.

Embarrassed in front of the military peers and subordinates who once respected him, Napoleon fled home from a battle he never anticipated, and one he would never fully recover from the battle of the bunnies.

Which of the following is not a term used to describe the bunnies that attacked Napoleon and his men?

You likely hear the name “Napoleon Bonaparte” and immediately think of the short in stature and short in temper French emperor. But have you heard about his most embarrassing surrender? No, not Waterloo! Not Laon or the battle of La Rothiere either! Napoleon's most laughable defeat came well before his loss at Waterloo, in the summer of 1807.

Despite Napoleon's great renown as a brilliant military leader, he once retreated frantically from an army of ….bunnies! You heard that right! Shortly after Napoleon’s Treaties of Tilsit was penned, the emperor planned to celebrate with his fellow military men the best way he knew how - a hunt! Napoleon ordered the chief of staff, Alexandre Berthier, to organize an extravagant rabbit hunt for Napoleon and his men.

Not to be outdone, Berthier collected what was estimated to be between hundreds and thousands of rabbits for the hunt. However, while Berthier assumed that, like wild rabbits, these village-raised rabbits would scurry at the sight of Napoleon and his men, exactly the opposite was true. When the day came and the hunting party was ready for the chase, the bunnies were released. But instead of running for the woods, the swarm of rabbits came straight for Napoleon and his men. Though the men initially attempted to fight back, they were overwhelmed by the hoard and fled to their coaches on a panicked retreat. It was not until the coaches sped away, rabbits still hopping aboard even as they attempted to retreat, that Napoleon was able to escape the furry army.

Embarrassed in front of the military peers and subordinates who once respected him, Napoleon fled home from a battle he never anticipated, and one he would never fully recover from the battle of the bunnies.

In paragraph three of the passage, the author cites that Berthier was “Not to be outdone” most probably in order to

Every day it seems, new inventions surface that promise to add value to our day-to-day lives. But did you know, many of the inventions we interact with on a daily basis were developed completely by accident?

Take the microwave, for instance. This accidental invention was developed by engineer Percy Spencer who, upon experimenting with a microwave-emitting magnetron, found that the candy bar in his pocket had begun to melt. Spencer was then able to harness this radiation into the microwave we use today to make snack time a speedy process!

Perhaps one of the most well-known accidental inventions of today, the potato chip was born when a customer kept requesting that his french fries be sliced thinner and made crispier. Though chef George Crum responded with the chips as a joke, they quickly became a favorite snack around the world!

Even the match is a result of accidental invention. When pharmacist John Walker was stirring chemicals, he noticed that the end of his stirring stick had dried into a hardened lump. When attempting to scrape the dried residue off, a flame sparked, and so did Walker’s idea to turn this accident into a helpful tool!

So, the next time your science experiment doesn’t go as planned, or you burn what you have cooked on the stove, keep in mind that some of today’s most valued inventions were discovered when the inventor least expected it!

Which of the following is not cited as an example of an accidental invention in the passage?

Every day it seems, new inventions surface that promise to add value to our day-to-day lives. But did you know, many of the inventions we interact with on a daily basis were developed completely by accident?

Take the microwave, for instance. This accidental invention was developed by engineer Percy Spencer who, upon experimenting with a microwave-emitting magnetron, found that the candy bar in his pocket had begun to melt. Spencer was then able to harness this radiation into the microwave we use today to make snack time a speedy process!

Perhaps one of the most well-known accidental inventions of today, the potato chip was born when a customer kept requesting that his french fries be sliced thinner and made crispier. Though chef George Crum responded with the chips as a joke, they quickly became a favorite snack around the world!

Even the match is a result of accidental invention. When pharmacist John Walker was stirring chemicals, he noticed that the end of his stirring stick had dried into a hardened lump. When attempting to scrape the dried residue off, a flame sparked, and so did Walker’s idea to turn this accident into a helpful tool!

So, the next time your science experiment doesn’t go as planned, or you burn what you have cooked on the stove, keep in mind that some of today’s most valued inventions were discovered when the inventor least expected it!

The author cites the example of when “you burn what you have cooked on the stove” in the final paragraph of the passage most probably in order to

The animal kingdom is made up of creatures of all shapes, sizes, and colors. While we may see color as little more than decoration, animals use their colors in three key ways: to hide, to deceive, and to attract.

The first purpose of color in the animal kingdom, to hide, is perhaps the most commonly known. Animals use a variety of colorations to camouflage themselves or to obscure their shapes from predators. For instance, the owl is often colored and patterned to match the bark of its tree of choice to better blend into its surroundings when perched. The leafy seadragon, an aquatic example of a species employing color to hide, uses its blue-green coloration and leaf-like protrusions to blend into the aquatic foliage of its ecosystem. But perhaps no species is better known for its ability to use color to hide than the chameleon, which can change color to blend into its surroundings. In fact, the chameleon is so well-known for this trait that its name has become a term that is now generally used to refer to one who “changes to fit/blend in.”

Deception is the second function of color in animals. Animals have been known to use their colors and patterns to deceive potential predators and prey. The hemeroplanes triptolemus, otherwise known as the aptly named “snake mimic caterpillar,” uses large, eye-like colorations on its underbelly to flip over and appear snake-like and thus more intimidating to predators. The orchid mantis is another fascinating example of deception in the animal kingdom. Brightly colored in hues of pink and purple, the mantis contorts itself to appear flower-like as it awaits its prey. When pollinators come around expecting a flower to feed on, they are in for a surprise, as the mantis sits ready to strike.

Animals don’t always use their colors to become less pronounced or to hide their true forms from predators or prey. They can also use colors to attract. Bright colorations in animals are used to both attract mates, and to attract attention from and send a warning to potential predators. Many species of birds are known to use bright colorations to attract potential female mates. Additionally, poisonous creatures might be seen with bright colorations and patterns to warn potential predators to leave them be! In fact, many non-poisonous animals have taken this “attract attention” purpose and melded it with “deception” to use their bright coloration to appear poisonous and thus dangerous to predators - even though they are completely harmless!

When it comes to animal colorations, there’s more than meets the eye. With bright colors to attract a mate or ward off a foe, patterns to obscure one’s form and markings that can make even the most harmless bug look like a terrifying creature, animals use color in many ways to better their chances of survival in the wild.

According to the passage, a harmless animal using bright colors to appear poisonous is using color in which of the following ways?

The animal kingdom is made up of creatures of all shapes, sizes, and colors. While we may see color as little more than decoration, animals use their colors in three key ways: to hide, to deceive, and to attract.

The first purpose of color in the animal kingdom, to hide, is perhaps the most commonly known. Animals use a variety of colorations to camouflage themselves or to obscure their shapes from predators. For instance, the owl is often colored and patterned to match the bark of its tree of choice to better blend into its surroundings when perched. The leafy seadragon, an aquatic example of a species employing color to hide, uses its blue-green coloration and leaf-like protrusions to blend into the aquatic foliage of its ecosystem. But perhaps no species is better known for its ability to use color to hide than the chameleon, which can change color to blend into its surroundings. In fact, the chameleon is so well-known for this trait that its name has become a term that is now generally used to refer to one who “changes to fit/blend in.”

Deception is the second function of color in animals. Animals have been known to use their colors and patterns to deceive potential predators and prey. The hemeroplanes triptolemus, otherwise known as the aptly named “snake mimic caterpillar,” uses large, eye-like colorations on its underbelly to flip over and appear snake-like and thus more intimidating to predators. The orchid mantis is another fascinating example of deception in the animal kingdom. Brightly colored in hues of pink and purple, the mantis contorts itself to appear flower-like as it awaits its prey. When pollinators come around expecting a flower to feed on, they are in for a surprise, as the mantis sits ready to strike.

Animals don’t always use their colors to become less pronounced or to hide their true forms from predators or prey. They can also use colors to attract. Bright colorations in animals are used to both attract mates, and to attract attention from and send a warning to potential predators. Many species of birds are known to use bright colorations to attract potential female mates. Additionally, poisonous creatures might be seen with bright colorations and patterns to warn potential predators to leave them be! In fact, many non-poisonous animals have taken this “attract attention” purpose and melded it with “deception” to use their bright coloration to appear poisonous and thus dangerous to predators - even though they are completely harmless!

When it comes to animal colorations, there’s more than meets the eye. With bright colors to attract a mate or ward off a foe, patterns to obscure one’s form and markings that can make even the most harmless bug look like a terrifying creature, animals use color in many ways to better their chances of survival in the wild.

The leafy seadragon and the snake mimic caterpillar are examples of which functions of color in the animal kingdom?

The animal kingdom is made up of creatures of all shapes, sizes, and colors. While we may see color as little more than decoration, animals use their colors in three key ways: to hide, to deceive, and to attract.

The first purpose of color in the animal kingdom, to hide, is perhaps the most commonly known. Animals use a variety of colorations to camouflage themselves or to obscure their shapes from predators. For instance, the owl is often colored and patterned to match the bark of its tree of choice to better blend into its surroundings when perched. The leafy seadragon, an aquatic example of a species employing color to hide, uses its blue-green coloration and leaf-like protrusions to blend into the aquatic foliage of its ecosystem. But perhaps no species is better known for its ability to use color to hide than the chameleon, which can change color to blend into its surroundings. In fact, the chameleon is so well-known for this trait that its name has become a term that is now generally used to refer to one who “changes to fit/blend in.”

Deception is the second function of color in animals. Animals have been known to use their colors and patterns to deceive potential predators and prey. The hemeroplanes triptolemus, otherwise known as the aptly named “snake mimic caterpillar,” uses large, eye-like colorations on its underbelly to flip over and appear snake-like and thus more intimidating to predators. The orchid mantis is another fascinating example of deception in the animal kingdom. Brightly colored in hues of pink and purple, the mantis contorts itself to appear flower-like as it awaits its prey. When pollinators come around expecting a flower to feed on, they are in for a surprise, as the mantis sits ready to strike.

Animals don’t always use their colors to become less pronounced or to hide their true forms from predators or prey. They can also use colors to attract. Bright colorations in animals are used to both attract mates, and to attract attention from and send a warning to potential predators. Many species of birds are known to use bright colorations to attract potential female mates. Additionally, poisonous creatures might be seen with bright colorations and patterns to warn potential predators to leave them be! In fact, many non-poisonous animals have taken this “attract attention” purpose and melded it with “deception” to use their bright coloration to appear poisonous and thus dangerous to predators - even though they are completely harmless!

When it comes to animal colorations, there’s more than meets the eye. With bright colors to attract a mate or ward off a foe, patterns to obscure one’s form and markings that can make even the most harmless bug look like a terrifying creature, animals use color in many ways to better their chances of survival in the wild.

According to the passage, which of the following might be an example of an animal that uses coloring to “obscure one’s form?”

Passage 1:

Graffiti - the public drawings and paintings that often cover surfaces of walls and other public structures - are often written off as an act of vandalism. However, the time has finally come when we begin to recognize graffiti for the art form it truly is.

Artists such as Banksy have shown us that graffiti can be a way to showcase not only one’s talent in the visual arts but also one’s political and social causes and stances. Some cities have even come to embrace graffiti to such an extent that they have commissioned works of art from these artists on the facades of public buildings.

Although graffiti began as an act of anarchy and rebellion, its contributions to society and the communities impacted by the art have seen positive responses that far outweigh the negatives. Graffiti is no longer a costly nuisance that should be immediately covered or removed, it has instead flourished to become an entirely new and unique art form with talent and renown that will eventually come to match the household names “Picasso” and “Michaelangelo” in stature.

Passage 2:

Though some might idolize graffiti as an act of admirable rebellion, this “art” causes nothing but negative impacts on its community. Those who would vandalize their streets and neighborhoods are no friend to the community. Instead, these criminals deface properties, decrease home values, and leave the community looking less pristine and cared for.

Such vandals also disregard the work put in by maintenance workers cleaning up after their messes and government officials attempting to create a better community for their citizens. While the work created by graffiti “artists” can sometimes be visually impressive, this does not outweigh the fact that what they have created is not art, but a crime against the community.

Popular graffiti “artists” auctioning work off for thousands of dollars apiece only perpetuate this trend. It is high time we put a stop to these criminal activities rather than glorifying them and allow true artists who follow city policies and stick to canvas or sculpture their due respect.

“Picasso” and “Michelangelo” are included in Passage 1 most likely in order to