HCl is a strong acid so it will completely dissociate into hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution.

Remember that

To find [H⁺], first find the number of moles of H⁺ in the solution. Because we are dealing with a monoprotic strong acid, the concentration of hydrogen ions will be equal to the concentration of acid.

Find [H⁺] by dividing the moles of hydrogen ions by the volume of solution (1L).

Use this value in the original equation for pH.

During more reactions, the reactants join to create a transitional form, or transition state, before becoming products. In a spontaneous reaction, the products will always have lower energy than the reactants, but the transition state is almost always higher energy than the reactants. Thus, in order to begin the reaction, energy must be provided to create the transition state from the given reactants. This initial energy is known as the activation energy.

The primary role of enzymes and catalysts in chemical processes is to lower the energy of the transition state, thus lowering the activation energy of the reaction and increasing its rate.

The primary role of glycolysis is to generate pyruvate from glucose. Pyruvate is then converted to acetyl-CoA before entering the Krebs cycle, the next step in cellular metabolism. Two molecules of pyruvate are created from each molecule of glucose.

In order to initiate this process, the reaction consumes two molecules of ATP and converts them to ADP. Later in the process, however, four molecules of ATP are generated. This gives a net yield of two ATP.

Two molecules of NADH are also created during glycolysis. These molecules are the reduced form of NAD⁺, loosely carrying an additional electron. This electron is donated to the electron transport chain later in cellular metabolism. It will be passed along the proteins of the electron transport chain in order to generate the proton gradient necessary for the function of ATP synthase.

A rough sketch of the reaction rate against the substrate concentration will show a curve that starts with a large slope, but then levels off to a horizontal asymptote.

Enzyme X follows Michaelis-Menton kinetics.  is roughly equal to the maximum velocity value recorded in the table (assuming that this is the value of the horizontal asymptote).

is the concentration of substrate that results in a rate of one-half  (about 20mmol/min); the concentration at this velocity can be approximated to be 10mM.

Enzyme X is not allosteric because it follows Michaelis-Menton kinetics (curve of that shape). Allosteric enzymes would give a sigmoidal curve.

 bonds are on the same plane, while  bonds are not on the same plane; therefore, the  bonds are much more useful for making branch points off of existing glycogen chains.

linkages cannot be easily broken down by eukaryotes and animals. Glycogen must be easily accessible as an energy source, and does not contain any glycosidic linkages.

Coenzyme Q₁₀ is a fat-soluble molecule that facilitates the transfer of electrons from complex I or II to complex III in the electron transport chain. The mobility of coenzyme Q₁₀ in the membrane allows for this unique function. Each complex in the membrane is then able to use the donated electron to push protons into the intermembrane space, generating the gradient that will eventually be used to synthesize ATP.

Coenzyme Q₁₀ does not directly facilitate the movement of protons. Rather, it aids in the transfer of electrons to initiate the process that allows for proton movement. Coenzyme Q₁₀ is also not involved with the regulation of ATP synthase or with bringing oxygen to the electron transport chain.

The initial reactants for glycolysis are glucose, ATP, ADP, and NAD⁺. The final products are pyruvate, ATP, ADP, and NADH. To get from glucose to pyruvate, a number of enzymes are needed. While knowing the names of each enzyme is not usually necessary, it is important to have a general understanding of the glycolytic process. The first step is phosphorylation of the reactant glucose, which is accomplished by hexokinase in most cells, and by glucokinase in the liver and pancreas specifically. The resultant glucose-6-phosphate then continues through the remaining steps in glycolysis to produce pyruvate.

Of the answer choices, only carbon dioxide is a product of the Krebs cycle. If the cycle is overstimulated, too much of the products will be formed and the body will have too much carbon dioxide.

Glucose is the reactant that fuels glycolysis to produce pyruvate, which is then converted to acetyl CoA for the Krebs cycle. As such, each of these would be depleted as reactants fueling an overstimulation of the Krebs cycle.

The citric acid (Krebs) cycle and glycolysis yield high energy intermediates that can then be used to make ATP. Each turn of the citric acid cycle generates NADH and FADH₂, and each cycle of glycolysis generates NADH. These intermediates can then donate their electrons and become oxidized in the electron transport chain. Production of these electron donors is essential to the function of the electron transport chain.

Pyruvate can be decarboxylated to make acetyl-CoA. This is the process that initiates the citric acid cycle. Pyruvate can also undergo fermentation, and be reduced to either lactic acid or acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde can then be reduced to ethanol, however, pyruvate cannot directly be converted to ethanol.