The Privileges and Immunities provision (as per Article IV) requires that every state must grant most of the same privileges and immunities that it gives to its own citizens to any individuals from other states. For instance, a Colorado resident who is vacationing in New York City cannot be discriminated against by any state institutions, employees, and/or laws simply because of his or her out-of-state background; however, there are several exceptions to this provision (such as university tuition or concealed-carry gun permits) and the Supreme Court has yet to precisely state exactly what privileges and immunities are supposed to be guaranteed from state to state. Another example of a commitment owed from all states to all other states is contained in the Full Faith and Credit Clause. Also included in Article IV, this Clause ensures that all records, civil court rulings, and other public activities (such as divorces and child custody arrangements) are legally respected by every state, regardless of the state in which the record originated. As per this Clause, a Wisconsin couple that obtains a divorce and then moves to separate states is still considered to be legally divorced in their new states and hometowns.

The most common type of grant given by the federal government to the states is the categorical grant. Categorical grants are only permitted to be used for certain specified purposes and in clearly dictated ways; this level of embedded control explains the federal government’s frequent usage of this type of grant. In many cases, even when a state may dislike the restrictions attached to a specific categorical grant, it will accept the grant (and the attendant rules) nevertheless, as they are unwilling to refuse extra funds. There are two sub-types of categorical grants: first, there are project grants (which are given out on a competitive, meritorious basis) and secondly, there are formula grants (which are handed out in accordance with legislatively-defined formulas). Most formula grants are calculated in terms of population amount or average income level and the states do not apply for such grants but are instead simply approached by the federal administration. In contrast, block grants carry far fewer restrictions; these grants allow the states to spend the attached funds in whatever manner they please, so long as the money is spent legally and ethically. Unsurprisingly, states tend to be most in favor of block grants and often use these funds to promote community development and social services amongst their population.

The Supremacy Clause (Article IV, Paragraph 2) establishes that the Constitution and federal law override any state constitutions or laws, therefore state constitutions are not equal to the federal constitution. Although the Constitution does establish judicial review, it is not under the Supremacy Clause. Nowhere in the Constitution does it say that the president is the supreme ruler of the land.

There was much debate on the type of government that would be best for the United States. Many favored the ideas of John Locke and other philosophers but there was an overriding feeling that the new United States should have its own unique form of government. That raised the debate concerning power to govern and control of the government. Should it be a government controlled by the states, should it remain as it was under the Articles of Confederation, should it be a democracy or republic? There was no republic under the Articles of Confederation, nor was there a true federal government under the Articles of Confederation. The Federalists preferred a strong federal government based solely on the Constitution. That is why they were called the Federalists.

The questions asks for the definition of federalism. "Federalism" refers to the division of powers and authority between the state governments and the national government. "Bicameralism" is a concept concerning Congress or state legislatures. "Bicameralism" means that the legislature has two chambers. "Sovereignty" is incorrect because it means authority to rule. "Separation of powers" refers to the division of the national government into three branches--namely, the executive, the judicial, and the legislative. By contrast, "federalism" is about dividing authority between different levels of government--the federal or national government and the state governments.

The Framers of the American Constitution argued that both the state governments and the National government were sovereign within their separate spheres of responsibility granted by federalism. This is called dual sovereignty. Under the 10th Amendment and the doctrine of expressed powers, the Federal government is sovereign over all the authorities explicitly given to it by the Constitution, while the state governments remain sovereign over all other authorities not explicitly granted to the Federal government. The Framers argued that most government authority would be left or reserved to the state governments.

Taxation is a concurrent power because both the state governments and the national government have the power to tax. Concurrent powers are any powers that both the state and the federal governments possess. Taxation is not an implied power because under the Constitution, Congress is explicitly given the power to tax. Reserved powers are powers not explicitly given to Congress by the Constitution, but are left or reserved to the states. Since both Congress and the state governments can tax, this power is concurrent and not reserved solely to the state governments. An implied power is a power that is not explicitly given to Congress in the Constitution but is essential for Congress to possess in order for it to carry out one of its expressed powers.

This question asks for the definition of police powers. Police powers are powers to regulate health, safety, and wellbeing of citizens. These powers were reserved to the state governments under the Constitution. Executive power is power only exercised by the president in the US or a governor of a state. The legislative power are powers exercised by Congress or a state legislature to write legislation. The judicial power are powers exercised by judges or courts to interpret the law and decide cases. The sovereign power could mean a few things, but most generally it refers to all government's authority to rule, which would encompass police powers as well as all the other things government does.

Under the period of Dual Federalism (1789-1937), state governments retained most of the political authority in the United States. The Federal government's authority was relatively narrow and only applied to those powers explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. After 1937 until the 1960s, the US entered into a period called cooperative federalism where the federal government's power to regulate the economy grew while state powers generally decreased. From 1960 to 1980s, the US entered in a period called regulated federalism where the Federal government began to use its power to force the states to comply with its directives. The Federal government became more powerful than the state governments after 1937. Before 1937, the states generally possessed more authority in domestic affairs than the federal government.

Dual Federalism ended for a variety of related reasons. The only one that isn't true is state governments began to delegate their authority to the federal government. All of the other reasons help explain why Dual Federalism came to an end in the late 1930s. President Franklin Roosevelt and large Democrat majorities in Congress passed a program of laws regulating the American economy called the New Deal which allowed the Federal government to regulate state governments in order to improve the economy. But the president needed the Supreme Court to support his interpretation of the Constitution. The Supreme Court initially resisted the New Deal and overturned some of it as unconstitutional. After 1937, however, the Court began to support New Deal legislation and the government's increased regulations ending dual federalism once and for all. Congress also contributed to the end of dual federalism by vigorously using the “necessary and proper” clause to expand the number of implied powers. Congress used its implied powers to regulate the economy and justify the president's New Deal program.