Karen's boss is providing rewards for her performance, which is an example of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to increase desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable behaviors. On the contrary, classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli. Karen's boss is also providing reinforcement on a fixed interval schedule because the reinforcement is given after a set (i.e. fixed) period of time (i.e. interval). 

The correct answer here is "extinction," which refers to the decreased in a learned behavior as (i.e. if the behavior was learned via operant conditioning) the behavior is unpaired with reinforcement that encourages the behavior or when the conditioned stimulus is unpaired with the unconditioned stimulus that originally produced the behavior (i.e. if the behavior was learned via classical conditioning). "Discrimination" refers to the ability to distinguish between a particular stimulus associated with a learned response and similar stimuli. "Generalization" refers to the ability to transfer a conditioned response from the originally presented stimulus to other similar stimuli. Last, "reverse modeling" is not a real concept, but modeling refers to learning a behavior by observing another individual experience the consequences of classical or operant conditioning.

In operant conditioning, “negative” and “positive” refer to whether an unpleasant stimulus is taken away or a pleasant stimulus is added, respectively. “Reinforcement” increases the likelihood a behavior will occur, while “punishment” decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur. Since Alan’s trash-taking behavior increased, we know that this situation involved reinforcement. Since this behavior was motivated by the promise of a negative stimulus (e.g. Alan’s mother’s lecturing) being taken away, the label negative is most appropriate. Alan taking out the trash in order to prompt his mother to stop lecturing him is an example of negative reinforcement.

"Negative punishment" involves taking away a certain desired item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. In the example above, ignoring Kelly functions as negative punishment, in that Ben is removing his attention to reduce Kelly's teasing behavior. 

Lena is experiencing "learned helplessness"—she has apparently learned that studying is unrelated to positive test performance. She has started to feel that there is no amount of studying that will stop the undesirable grades. Learned helplessness is also seen in lab animals. If shocks are randomly administered to the animal, with no regard to what the animal is or is not doing at the time, then the animal will learn that there is no behavior that will stop the aversive stimulus (i.e. the shock). At this point, the animal will simply stop responding.

The association of the punishment to the undesired behavior becomes stronger if punishment is delivered in a proximal time frame to the behavior. Repeated use of this kind of treatment will create an operant conditioning dynamic that will produce a consequence to a preceding action. The severity and form of delivery do not matter as much as the close association of punishment to behavior. 

Context-dependent memory is a theory that suggests that information is optimally remembered when it is recalled in the same place in which it was initially learned. So, this theory suggests that you will do best on an exam when you take it in the same classroom where you learned that information! 

The recency effect occurs because there is less time to forget the words at the end of a list, as opposed to words at the beginning or in the middle of a list.

The sensory store is the first step of perception. It gathers all of the sensory information that is coming in through the five senses. Attention towards particular stimuli brings them out of the sensory store and into working memory/short-term memory. The rest of the sensory infomation decays very rapidly.

Crystallized intelligence is a measure of achievement, which can be tested by an IQ test. It includes facts and knowledge.

Fluid intelligence is a measure of how quickly an individual is able to learn. This cannot be tested on an IQ test. Fluid intelligence is often used as an indicator of future performance or academic potential.