Classical conditioning usually involves involuntary reflexes or visceral responses (think about the salivation of Pavlov's dogs). Observational learning such as modeling involves voluntary responses (e.g., a child mimicking a parent's gestures).

The beeping is considered to be negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is the type of reinforcement that occurs when an unpleasant stimuli is removed upon performing a behavior. Reinforcement always increases a behavior. In this case, the unpleasant stimulus is the car beeping and the behavior is buckling the seat belt. Positive reinforcement, on the other hand, is the application of a reward upon performing a behavior. Again, reinforcement (either positive or negative) always increases behavior. Both negative and positive punishments decrease behavior. Negative punishment is taking away something good upon performing a behavior (e.g. getting TV taken away due to a bad test grade). Positive punishment is the application of an unpleasant punishment upon performing a behavior (e.g. speeding on the freeway will result in a ticket).

Behavior can be shaped through operant conditioning through the use of rewards and punishments. "Negative reinforcement "occurs when you remove or relieve a negative feeling. In this case, Sandy's behavior of canceling the show is being negatively reinforced because it removes the feelings of anxiety. 

Reinforcement schedules can be fixed or variable and ratio or interval. In general, "ratio reinforcement" schedules are most resistant to extinction compared to interval schedules. On the other hand, "negative reinforcement" and "positive reinforcement" are not reinforcement schedules.

A "variable-ratio" reinforcement schedule delivers a reinforcer after a variable number of non-reinforced responses. In the same way, slot machines give a reinforcement (i.e. winning) after a variable number of losses. This type of reinforcement schedule elicits a higher resistance to extinction with high steady rates of responding making it very lucrative for the casino industry.

"Positive punishment" occurs when a stimulus (e.g. shock) is provided and weakens a response. "Negative punishment" occurs when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is removed and this weakens a response. "Positive reinforcement" is when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is provided and strengthens a response. Last, "negative reinforcement" occurs when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is removed and this strengthens a response.

"Positive reinforcement" is when a stimulus (e.g. sugar pellet) is provided that strengthens a response. "Negative reinforcement" occurs when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is removed and this strengthens a response. "Positive punishment occurs" when a stimulus (often an unpleasant one) is provided and this weakens a response. Last, "negative punishment" occurs when a stimulus (often a pleasant one) is removed and this weakens a response.

Marc is on a "fixed-interval" reinforcement schedule. This is because he is reinforced after a certain fixed amount of time has gone by. It is not "fixed-ratio," because it does not depend on his behaviors emitted. It also is not "variable-interval," because there is no varying time in between his reinforcement: it's every two weeks. It is not "variable-ratio" because he is not being reinforced for a certain amount of behaviors and the time does not vary in between reinforcement (i.e. paycheck delivery). Last,"variable-shaping" is not a real reinforcement schedule. 

This is an example of negative reinforcement because when the child is cleaning his room, he removes the unpleasant stimulus: his yelling of his parent.

"Strengthening a behavior by taking away a negative stimulus" is the correct answer. Often confused with punishment, negative reinforcement strengthens behavior while punishment discourages it. For example, hitting the snooze button on an alarm clock takes away a negative stimulus (i.e. the horrible noise) and makes you more likely to hit the snooze button again. 

The other choices are incorrect. "Strengthening a behavior by providing a positive stimulus" is positive reinforcement, while "discouraging a behavior by adding a negative stimulus" is considered to be a punishment. "Strengthening a behavior by repeating reinforcement every time the behavior occurs" is continuous reinforcement. Last, "discouraging a behavior by adding a positive stimulus" is incorrect. Providing a positive stimulus promotes a behavior and does not discourage it For example, if a child is crying and you give her a chocolate to stop crying, then she is likely to cry again because she knows she has been given chocolate in the past for the same action, which promotes the crying behavior.