The Schachter two-factor theory of emotion posits that the experience of arousal (i.e. Ahmed’s increased heart rate and blood flow to the skin) is qualitatively identical in all instances and only differentiated into specific emotions as a result of cognitive evaluation and labeling of the situation at hand. James-Lange, on the other hand, posits that different emotions result from different patterns of arousal, while Cannon-Bard posits that arousal and emotion occur in parallel. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is not a theory of emotion, but of language.

The correct answer is that "the James-Lange theory says we have a physiological response and then we label it as an emotion, while Cannon-Bard theory says that we have an emotional response and we later feel the physiological response." The other answers are all incorrect, because they are either only half correct, or not correct at all. The Schacter-Singer theory says that we experience feelings and then label them, while Cognitive Appraisal theory says that we experience something, we think about it, and then we label it as an emotion. The other answers are all incorrect juxtapositions of different, incorrect theories or simply a switching of the two theories. 

The example with Aaron is the best choice. In the James-Lange view, an external stimulus creates a bodily change, and then that bodily change prompts the emotional experience (i.e. Aaron is afraid because his heart is beating quickly). Contrastingly, the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion posits that the stimulus triggers a response in the brain, which then contributes to the physiological (e.g. bodily changes) and subjective (e.g. “I must be feeling __________”) experiences of emotion at the same time. This is why the examples with Beatrice and Daniel both reflect the Cannon-Bard view. The example with Violet is related to the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion (also called the two-factor theory), which is harder to distinguish from the James-Lange theory. The “two factors” in this theory are autonomic arousal (ti.e. he heightened bodily response to an emotionally inductive stimulus) and cognitive appraisal (i.e. what you think about your body’s reaction). Since Violet thinks about her body’s reaction and determines she is excited, rather than instantly concluding her emotional state like Aaron did; therefore, she is demonstrating the Schachter-Singer theory.

Cannon-Bard theory states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously.

While primary drives are directly related to basic survival and reproduction, secondary drives are related to social factors. Money is not directly related to basic survival, but it can aid in quelling primary drives (for example, using money to buy food to reduce hunger).

The id operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification. The id satisfies drives, developed from physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, sexual drives, and more. The id, unlike the ego or superego, contains no morality or judgment of value. Rather, it seeks immediate pleasure or avoidance of pain, and disregards long-term consequences and benefits. 

Proposed by Abraham Maslow, the hierarchy of needs theory states that the most important physiological needs must be met before other, less urgent needs are met. These essential needs consist of oxygen, food, water, and shelter. After physiological needs are met, one will seek to fulfill the need for safety and security (personal, physical, and financial), belongingness and love (friendship, intimacy, and family), then self esteem (earned respect), self actualization (reaching one’s highest potential), and then self transcendence (finding a greater, spiritual purpose in life). According to Maslow, very few people reach a level of self transcendence. 

The amygdala is a key brain structure in the limbic system. Those who experience brain damage in this area have difficulty developing conditioned fear responses.

Drive reduction theory is based on the idea that human behavior is motivated by various drives. This behavior is undertaken in hopes of reducing the state of tension these drives create. The most basic of examples would be that when people are hungry they experience the distress of hunger and are motivated to look for food. A more nuanced example might be humans' drives to connect with romantic partners. If humans seek connection and don't find it with one partner, they may look for it in another person.

Extrinsic motivation is a pervasive force behind many of our daily behaviors. Most people don't go to work because it's intrinsically pleasurable, but because they need something. In essence, extrinsic is when someone does something for something else. We go to school to avoid punishment and get approval from our teachers, parents, and peers. We work to get money to pay the bills to avoid being broke and to make our families happy and comfortable. 

The reverse is doing something for its intrinsic pleasure, known as intrinsic motivation. For instance we may enjoy knowing more about the world for the pleasure it gives us, not what we have to gain from it.