Contrary to popular belief, big "cramming sessions" are not effective ways to remember material. Rather, the spacing effect phenomena demonstrates that studying things in small chunks with measured periods of time in between fosters better memory encoding.

Mood-congruent memory is the tendency to recall memories that are congruent with your current emotional state, often leading to temporarily biased views of the past. For instance, if we are mad at someone, we are more likely to remember negative memories associated with them as opposed to the potentially large amount of positive ones. This has a tendency to reinforce and perpetuate our current emotional states.

Elizabeth Loftus revealed that many memories could be planted or fabricated by using subtle ways to make people believe they remembered a particular event, such as suggesting, questioning, or making a person doubt themselves by claiming they may have repressed the memory of it.

The context-dependent theory of memory posits that certain memories are more accessible in the physical place in which they were experienced. That is, they may be harder to access in areas where the memory was not experienced. This is a classic example of going back to a place and having a "rush of memories" coming back to you.

Anterograde amnesia is memory loss for events that transpired following immediately after trauma. Retrograde amnesia refers to memory loss for events that preceded the traumatic event.

Elizabeth Loftus has had a long and distinguished career studying eyewitness memory and the creation of false memories. In one of her well-known experiments, participants remembered the speed of a car as being faster or slower depending on the wording of the question. In another experiment, she demonstrated that about 25 percent of people could be convinced that they remembered being lost in a mall as a small child, even though this event never actually happened to them. 

“Anterograde amnesia” is caused by damage to the hippocampus and results in the inability to create new memories. “Retrograde amnesia” is also caused by damage to the hippocampus, but is characterizes with the inability to remember anything that occurred before a certain time. These individuals can still form new memories. “Amnesia” is too general of term and is incorrect. Last, “echoic memory” is not associated with forgetting information. 

Episodic memory (i.e. memories of lived experiences), together with semantic memory (i.e. known facts), forms the category explicit memory. Explicit memories are available for conscious reflection and can be called up and described. The other three choices are all types of implicit memory, or memory that is drawn upon outside of conscious awareness. Procedural memory refers to the knowledge of how to perform physical actions. Priming refers to the unintended influence of frequent or recent experiences. Classically conditioned learning refers to trained associations between frequently paired stimuli.

George Miller’s research on short-term memory established that humans are typically limited to dealing with “seven plus or minus two” pieces of information at one time. Noam Chomsky is most famous for theorizing universal grammar and language acquisition. George Lakoff’s work concerns the relationship between cognition and metaphor. Stanley Milgram is a social psychologist, controversial for his work on obedience.

In the field of psychology, the spacing effect is the phenomenon in which humans more easily remember items when they are spaced out over a long period of time as opposed to repeatedly studied in a short period of time.