During the Enlightenment period, political philosophy generally fell under two headings: conservatism and liberalism. Liberals favored rapid, progressive change, often brought about through revolution or bloodshed, and they desired an immediate end to autocracy and absolute monarchy. Conservatives, on the other hand, favored slower, more gradual change to society and feared chaos and disorder more than they feared autocracy.

St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 as a major port city and capital for the Russian Empire. Its name was later changed to Leningrad with the rise of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century.

Under Napoleon III, France and the Ottoman Empire made a special agreement, part of which allowed Catholics, particularly French Catholics, free access to the parts of the Holy Land around Jerusalem controlled by the Ottomans. Russia objected to the exclusion of Orthodox Christians by the Ottomans, and in due course the Ottomans reversed course. The open conflict erupted in 1854 and saw the Russian Empire take on an Allied force of British, French, and Ottoman troops. The result was a decisive Allied victory.

The Crimean War was fought in the 1850s between the French and British on one side and the Russians on the other. The British and French had long feared Russian expansion into the Mediterranean, and when Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire, British and French foreign policy necessitated a declaration of war. The war ended in victory for the British and French forces. The Crimean War is also notable for the work of Florence Nightingale and the subsequent changes in medical practice brought about by her efforts.

During the nineteenth century, following the Napoleonic Wars, British foreign policy became much less focused on competition with France and the other Western European nations, and much more concerned with limiting the expansion of the Russian empire. The British and French feared the growth of Russian influence in the Middle East and the Mediterranean and so sought to sure up the failing Ottoman Empire. The most notable incident derived from the British policy of containment was the Crimean War, fought between France and Britain on one side and Russia on the other.

The Rurik family ruled over Russia from its inception in the ninth century until 1613 when they were replaced by the Romanov family. The Romanovs ruled from 1613 until they were ousted from power during the Russian Revolution of 1917. Notable Romanovs include Catherine the Great, Peter the Great, Alexander I and II, and Nicholas I. 

The boyars were the highest ranking aristocrats in feudal Russian society. Their power came from the tracts of land and the number of men they controlled. Because they controlled vast private armies they were very important to the ruler of Russia who had to keep the boyars on his side. 

When Ivan III of Russia, usually called Ivan the Great, came to power, Russia was little more than Moscow and the surrounding territory. He dramatically increased the size of the country, first by conquering the Republic of Novgorod and then by kicking the Mongolian rulers out of Russian land. 

The Rurik family had previously ruled Russia for hundreds of years, but during the Time of Troubles (1598–1613) the family collapsed and was replaced by the Romanov family. The Romanovs would rule until the end of the Russian monarchy, which was destroyed by the Russian Revolution in 1917. The Time of Troubles is so-called because it was a period of extreme hardship for the Russian people. The country was occupied by the forces of the Duchy of Lithuania, and the country experienced widespread famine from 1601 until 1603, when a third of the population (two million people) starved to death.

Peter the Great is one of the most significant rulers in Russian history. He was was motivated by the idea of modernizing and reforming Russian society and the Russian army. To this end, he turned to his advisors from Western Europe and eradicated many of the longstanding traditions in Russian society. Peter was also desperate to expand Russian territory, particularly into the Baltic Sea, and he fought the Great Northern War against the Swedish Empire to achieve this. He founded the city of St. Petersburg to serve as a port city on the Baltic, making it the capital of Russia.