Generalization refers to the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to induce the conditioned response. For example, a dog’s owner rings a bell when he feeds his dog. Over successive occurrences, a dog might begin to salivate to bells of a slightly different timbre. 

The light is considered the conditioned stimulus because it results in the conditioned response only after it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (i.e. the loud noise). Prior to learning, the conditioned stimulus does not elicit the learning response. On the other hand, the unconditioned stimulus always causes the response, even without learning. The unconditioned and conditioned responses are the subject's jumping behaviors.

Forward conditioning is an effective form of classical conditioning. Forward conditioning includes both trace and delay conditioning. In trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented first, is then stopped/removed, and then the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented. While this can be effective, it is not the most effective of the choices. The most effective form of forward conditioning is delay conditioning, where the CS is presented and then overlaps with the US. In backward conditioning the US is presented before the CS, and does not result in any learning. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when both the US and CS are presented at the same time. 

The dog was conditioned to expect food after hearing the bell or sound, which caused him to salivate before eating. After many repetitions, even before the food arrived, the dog expected to be fed soon after hearing the bell; therefore, the salivation was conditioned to happen after hearing the sound. 

The correct answer is classical conditioning. In classical conditioning you can train an animal to have a response to an unrelated stimuli. Originally clapping was not associated with going for a walk. Because you associated them together the dog is now conditioned to think clapping means he is going for a walk. On the other hand the rest of the choices are incorrect. Operant conditioning is training a certain desired behavior by reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is an example of operant conditioning. This is when you take something good away to create a desired behavior. Such as taking away a child's cell phone until they clean their room. Positive reinforcement is another example of operant conditioning. This is when you give something good to create a desired behavior. An example of this is giving a child a cookie because they cleaned their room. Last, positive punishment is when you add something bad to decrease a behavior. An example of this is if you spank a child for misbehaving.

Each time Mary's mother takes away her dessert, she is trying to decrease Mary's temper tantrums by removing something that Mary finds desirable. The key words here are "decrease" and "take away." Any action that decreases a behavior is a form of punishment, and any action that increases a behavior is reinforcement. When something is removed it is considered negative, and when something is added it is positive. In this case, Mary's mother taking away her dessert in order to decrease her temper tantrums is “negative punishment.” 

Weekly paychecks are an example of a "fixed interval" schedule of reinforcement, because the reinforcement (i.e. paycheck) is given each week after the same amount of time has passed. An example of a "fixed ratio" schedule would be if a paycheck were given after a person completed five assignments. "Variable ratio" and "variable interval" schedules provide reinforcement after a variable or changing amount of either time (e.g. variable interval) or number of completed tasks (e.g. variable ratio).

When a conditioned stimulus (CS) is no longer paired with an unconditional stimulus (US), then the conditioned stimulus loses its power. In the case of Pavlov, if the bell (CS) is no longer paired with food (US), then the dog will no longer salivate at the sound of the bell. 

Each time Mary's mother takes away her dessert, she is trying to decrease Mary's temper tantrums by removing something that Mary finds desirable. The key words here are "decrease" and "take away." Any action that decreases a behavior is a form of punishment, and any action that increases a behavior is reinforcement. When something is removed it is considered negative, and when something is added it is positive. In this case, Mary's mother taking away her dessert in order to decrease her temper tantrums is “negative punishment.” 

Ivan Pavlov was the theorist who coined the term classical conditioning after he noticed his dog salivated each time he entered the room, even before presenting food. Pavlov went on to pair the sound of a bell with salivation, which demonstrated learning by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. The other theorists are incorrect choices. Skinner and Thorndike are associated with operant/instrumental conditioning. Watson is also associated with classical conditioning, but is famous for his Little Albert study.