St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great. The name was changed in 1914 to Petrograd, again in 1924 to Leningrad, and finally in 1991 back to St. Petersburg.

The English Civil War (1642 - 1651) was fought between the royalists and parliamentarians over the nature of English government. The royalists were led by King Charles I and the parliamentarians were led by Oliver Cromwell.

The forces of Charles I were defeated, and he was tried and found guilty of high treason. He was then beheaded in 1649.

The Constitution established the American government as we now know it, so that would not be the best answer. The Articles of Confederation established the first, short-lived U.S. government, so that would not be the best answer. The Edict of Milan was the Roman decree that established tolerance for Christianity, so that would not be a good answer. The Mandate of Heaven was the idea used by Chinese historians to justify the rise and fall of dynasties, so that too would not be a good choice. Lastly, the Magna Carta established the first constitutional monarchy in England, so that would be the correct answer.

The Renaissance was a time of immense social and cultural change. For centuries, Europe had functioned under a feudal system and life was dominated by tradition and religion. The great works of the Greeks and Romans were revived, studied, and appreciated. People emulated the famous artists, studied the classic sciences, and learned about philosophy in hopes of creating a better society. It was a time that changed the way people thought about the world and themselves. Some historians consider the Renaissance as the beginning of the modern era, in part because so many things were discovered and invented such as: the heliocentric universe, the printing press, mechanical clocks, scales, oil painting, glasses for the near sighted, whiskey, bottled beer, the first submarine, the steam pump, and much more.

Florence was founded in 59 BC by Julius Caesar, he named it Florentia which means “flourishing”. It was situated on a trade route between Rome and northern Italy and grew into a central trade center. They minted their own currency, “the Florian”, and the Medici family made the city a huge banking hub, which attracted immigrants to the city, many of whom were patrons of the many artistic masterpieces brought to life in Florence during the Renaissance.

In 1345 Petrarch discovered the lost collection Cicero’s letters. Cicero was considered one of the greatest minds of Rome and was a very influential writer and politician who lived during the 1^st century BC. This discovery of these letters is sometimes crediting for triggering the Renaissance. Petrarch was an Italian scholar and is credited as the founder of humanism. He is also said to have coined the phrase “dark ages” in referring to the century before his lifetime.

Karl Marx described the proletariat class as the one that, failing to own the means of production (a business or family inheritance, primarily) must sell their labor to survive. 

Indulgences were sold throughout the medieval period in Europe by the Catholic church as a means to grant oneself forgiveness for sins or to gain forgiveness for someone who had died. The idea was the Catholic church was in charge of dispensing “merit” so that people could enter into heaven and that those who give financially to the church should benefit. They became extremely popular in 1517, when Pope Leo X sold indulgences to build a new St. Peter’s Basilica, as many people attempted to gain forgiveness. The selling of indulgences outraged Martin Luther, who mentioned them throughout his 95 Theses and fought against them as one of his main issues for reform. In 1567, the church outlawed the selling of indulgences.

Martin Luther wrote the 95 Theses, in which he questioned and criticized many practices of the Catholic church, including indulgences (reduction of punishment for a sin), which many church members were abusing by commercializing the process. These questions would spark change resulting in the Protestant Reformation.

The Crusades were a series of religious wars fought between Christian forces of Europe and Muslim armies of the Middle East. Most of the conflict took place over Middle Eastern territory considered sacred by both faiths. The other answers are incorrect because they refer to other historically opposing forces, several of which did not fight wars with each other.