James Polk occupied the Oval Office for a single term (1845-1849) but he accomplished much in that relatively short span of time (Polk intentionally ran on a one-term promise). Polk is most famous for leading the nation to triumph against Mexico in the Mexican-American War. The hostilities started under suspicious circumstances: Polk alleged that Mexican troops had trespassed on American soil, while ignoring the inconvenient fact that American soldiers, under then-General Zachary Taylor, had committed the exact same offense. The President used this allegation to influence Congress into declaring war against Mexico, a prospect which the majority of Congressmen seemed all too willing to support. The ensuing war is perhaps today best remembered by the Battle of the Alamo, but the overall conflict between the two countries was rather short-lived, lasting little more than a year. Flush with victory, Polk and his administration negotiated an extremely advantageous treaty with Mexico: all land located north of the Rio Grande River became American property, including lucrative California. As one of his last acts as President, Polk announced the recent discovery of gold in California’s hills, and the rush – to both gold and Californian statehood – was officially on.

In 1864, the nation was at a true crossroads: the Civil War had been raging for more than three years, with tremendous loss of life, devastating military setbacks, and frequent changes in leadership at the head of the Union Army. President Lincoln, determined to run for re-election, made his case to the North, asking to be granted a second term in office so that he could steer the conflict through to its final, hopefully triumphant, end. Lincoln faced much opposition, not only from the North’s war-weary civilians but also from members of his own political party, many of whom no longer saw the South as worth regaining and had begun pressing the President to sue for peace and dissolution. Yet Lincoln’s toughest adversary emerged from an even closer source: General George McClellan, who had served, at Lincoln’s own appointment, as the leader of the Union Army from 1861 to 1862. Not only did McClellan run a vigorous campaign against Lincoln, in which he accused the President of being a warmonger and politically unskilled, but the general also bore a fierce personal grudge: Lincoln had fired McClellan as general-in-chief in 1862, following numerous quarrels between the two men over military strategy, troop movements, and McClellan’s pattern of willfully ignoring the President’s instructions. McClellan’s long war record, personal charisma, and numerous illustrious social connections, not to mention his support for seeking a peace deal with the South, drew a great deal of support to his campaign – so much so that Lincoln, on the eve of the election, expressed his sorrow at what he saw as his own impending defeat. Fortunately for both Lincoln and the course of the war, Northerners chose to grant Lincoln a second term in the Oval Office, trusting his demonstrated judgment at conducting the war over McClellan’s enticing but unproven political ideas. Lincoln’s victory was further helped by the Union Army’s capture of Atlanta and Mobile, Alabama, both of which occurred just before Election Day.

Although he is best remembered for his role as the leader and instigator of the infamous Watergate Scandal, President Richard Nixon is in fact responsible for putting an end to the controversial Vietnam War. The Vietnam War dragged on for eight years, with considerable and increasingly virulent opposition from the American people. The very beginnings of this war can be traced back to the beginning of the Cold War and the nation’s standoff with the Soviet Union, but it was President Lyndon B. Johnson who enmeshed American troops into the Vietnam conflict. Johnson hoped that South Vietnam, which had democratic leanings, would be able, with US military aid, to defeat the communist-aligned North Vietnamese, but the war quickly deteriorated into a murderous quagmire from which America seemed unable to escape. Nixon was elected to the Presidency partially due to his promise to secure an end to the conflict – a guarantee which became reality in 1973, with Nixon’s negotiation of a peace treaty with the North Vietnamese and the removal of US troops from the now-divided country. It would be less than a year before Nixon found his machinations in the Watergate Scandal laid bare before the public. His legacy is forever tarnished by the Scandal itself, his bellicose attitude, his hostility towards federal investigators, and his ignominious resignation of the Presidency on August 9th, 1974.

After Franklin D. Roosevelt’s sudden death at the beginning of his fourth presidential term, his Vice President, Harry Truman, took over the Oval Office. Truman faced a daunting task: World War Two, although winding down, was still very much raging and Roosevelt had been a truly formidable war leader. Nevertheless, Truman stepped up to the challenge and was quite successful: the Allied Army, under joint American-British-Soviet leadership, vanquished Nazi Germany in April 1945. Yet one last foe remained, for the Pacific front of the war was still ongoing and Japan, with its skilled army, air force, and navy, seemed untroubled by its German ally’s collapse. Many American generals urged Truman to invade the mainland Japanese island, in spite of the overwhelming losses that were inevitably certain to ensue. An alternate solution was placed before the President: the Manhattan Project, a top-secret scientific program commissioned by Roosevelt that had succeeded in developing the world’s first two nuclear bombs. Fearing further bloody engagements with the Japanese army and desiring a decisive end to the war in the Pacific, Truman authorized the use of these nuclear weapons. After issuing warnings to the Japanese government, which were disregarded as little more than bluffs, Truman ordered the nuclear bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The resulting total devastation did bring about the immediate surrender of the Japanese, just as Truman had wanted, but at a truly fearful and continuingly controversial cost.

George Washington (term: 1789-1797), one of the Founding Fathers of America, made several moves that established various roles and expectations of American Presidents. He enacted the idea of the President heading the military when Washington led the military in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. He also deeply respected law and the Constitution, so he gave Congress the authority that this new republic (new at the time) imbued it with. He refused to side with one political party.  Washington saw political parties as symptoms of fractures in the nation. 

Maybe most importantly, he left the office after eight years (two terms) because he believed in the freedom they had gained from the British monarchy’s rule. 

He did not make the Louisiana Purchase – that was done several years later by Thomas Jefferson.

John Adams (term: 1797-1801) restricted the rights of the press, non-citizens, and the right of free speech with the Alien and Sedition Acts. These laws were enacted during a time in which war with France seemed more than likely to happen, creating varying levels of paranoia among different groups. These acts created a wave of unpopularity towards Adams and the Federalist Party.

This resulted in John Adams and the Federalist Party losing the election to Thomas Jefferson in 1801, and Adams serving only one term.

Prior to his presidency, James Madison (term: 1801-1809) contributed several articles promoting the new American government and explaining the nuances of our landmark Constitution. These articles are known as the Federalist Papers. 

Federalist #10 is a very important piece of writing. In it, Madison explains that factions have the ability to tear apart the country due to the proverbial line in the sand that a faction creates. Factions are known today as interest groups.

A strong enough faction with a large enough majority could take on powers that would challenge the government’s functions and erode civil rights and liberties of the minority. Whether it is over a religious principle, supporting leaders, or government policy, factions create a serious division between the people on either side of the argument. James Madison accepts that factions will exist, so his approach to balancing them is through governmental regulations (which would, ideally, protect the citizens from a faction becoming tyrannical).

In the first line of the excerpt above, note what Madison describes as the root cause for factions to rise: “the nature of man”.

Grover Cleveland (terms: 1885-1889; 1893-1897) was elected to two non-consecutive terms. In the 1889 election, he actually won the popular vote and lost the election. This has happened only a handful of times in Presidential elections.

William McKinley (term: 1897-1901) annexed Hawaii in 1898 after a push-back from Democrats and some Republicans. This expanded America’s reach in the Pacific (along with Spain handing over the Philippines to the United States). The push-back McKinley received in Congress meant that Hawaii would not become a state immediately. It would be decades until President Eisenhower made Hawaii America’s 50^th state.

Theodore Roosevelt (term: 1901-1910) was able to accomplish a great deal during his eight years in office. He is known as a nature-lover, essentially adding an adventurer mystique to his character. Roosevelt set up national parks, became the first sitting president to visit a foreign country, and helped to build the Panama Canal. He also clamped restrictions onto monopolies, which gained the nickname the “Trust Buster.”

Theodore Roosevelt did not enact the draft to bolster the military.