Ed's action was impulsive, motivated solely by emotion to directly attack the source of his anger and cause him pain. Instrumental aggression is motivated by the prospect of some reward for such behavior, while passive aggression and relational aggression involve indirect attacks against a target's social standing or possessions (e.g. sabotage, humiliation).

Maslow believed that the ultimate destiny of mankind was self-actualization, or a tendency to become everything that one is capable of becoming. Maslow theorized that human existance is based on needs that arise in hierarchical order: basic physiological needs such as food; safey needs; love and belonging needs; self-respect and self-esteem needs; and self-actualization.

In order, Maslow's hierarchy of needs are physiological, safety, social/belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. Physiological needs include water and food, safety needs include financial security and health, social/belonging needs include friendship and family, self-esteem needs include confidence and respect from others, self-actualization needs include the need to accomplish everything that a person feels he/she is capable of doing. 

Maslow believed that all of the lower levels of the hierarchy needed to be met in order for someone to achieve the highest level: self-actualization.

A reward is something good for the students, while a punishment is something bad for them. A positive reward/punishment introduces something new into their environment (i.e. the classroom), while a negative reward/punishment removes something from their environment. Getting to leave class early is a good thing for the students that removes something unpleasant (here, the extra time spent in class) from their environment, so it is a negative reward.

These are four of Abraham Maslow's five needs. His theory regarding human motivation consists of a pyramid-like hierarchy of needs: physiological needs (hunger, thirst, health, sex, etc.), safety needs, belonging and love needs, esteem needs (approval and recognition), and self-acutalization needs (living up to one's own potential).

According to the Incentive Theory, motivation is based on positive and negative associations with stimuli. So, one is motivated to do something because of an associated reward or motivated to not do something because of an associated punishment.

The concept of the theory is in its name. The Drive-Reduction Theory reduces motivation to satisfying drives caused by biological needs. On a side-note, because of this simplification, many critics have argued that it fails to account for pleasure-seeking activities.

The Incentive Theory states that human behavior is motivated by rewards or punishments associated with stimuli.

There are many types of psychological motivation, including intrinsic and extrinsic, conscious and unconscious, and approach and avoidance. Intrinsic motivation occurs when the action itself is beneficial, whereas extrinsic motivation occurs when the action can lead to a benefit. Conscious motivation is motivation that we are aware of, whereas unconscious motivation is motivation that affects us without our knowledge. Avoidance motivation is staying clear of negative things, whereas approach motivation is seeking positive things. Inherent motivation is not a key term used in psychology.

The order of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is as follows: physical needs, security needs, belongingness, self-esteem, and self-actualization. All of the scenarios in the answer choices follow that order besides "Thomas sacrificing food for the night to buy flowers for the girl he loves" because he is putting a physical need before the need for belongingness/companionship.