In verbal learning, the term “direction of associations” refers to the tendency for recall to only go in the direction it is rehearsed. For example, if you make flash cards for Spanish class, and rehearse by reading the English word (first word of the pair) followed by the Spanish word (second word of the pair), there is a good chance that you would recall the Spanish; however, if you were tested from Spanish to English you may not be able to recall the information because the “direction of associations” tends to follow the direction you rehearsed. 

In learning and memory, the term “categorical clustering” refers to the tendency for recall of a list to increase when the list is constructed so that the words come from the same semantic categories. For example, a list is easier to recall when the words are related to each other, such as types of food or animals.

“Implicit learning” is a type of learning that seems to occur even without awareness or the intention to learn. Although learning has taken place, it may not be able to be verbalized or well articulated. For example, if you have seen and performed a process “by rote” or habit many times, you might have trouble trying to describe exactly how to do it to someone else. You might have to demonstrate it instead of just describing it.

Scientific studies of learning tend to rely on objective evidence of a quantifiable and relatively permanent change in behavior. In other words, the result of learning must be capable of being empirically observed and measured. Neuroscience is making huge strides in mapping changes to the brain that occur as a result of learning, but most learning is still not visible through brain imaging. The scientific method does not rely on subjective experiences. 

Grammatical rules are those of "syntax" because they depend almost exclusively on the placement of words and their arrangement in a sentence. Their position relative to each other allows ideas to be expressed in a multitude of different ways. A different arrangement of words in a sentence will produce a different idea. 

In this case, the bell's ringing ends before the food is presented; therefore, it would be best described as "trace conditioning." If the bell were still ringing when the food was presented, then this would be described as "delayed conditioning," which has the most powerful response. In "backward conditioning," the unconditioned stimulus is presented before the conditioned stimulus. Also, in "simultaneous conditioning," the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus are presented at the same time.

The Bobo doll experiment serves as a groundbreaking study on aggression and demonstrates that children are able to learn by behavioral observation. 

In the Bobo doll experiment, children who observed an adult acting agressively towards a blow up "Bobo doll" toy would emulate and mimic that behavior. This supports the social learning theory developed by Bandura.

Gardner claimed that a person's intelligence could be measured along these eight parameters: linguistic, logic-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. These eight different abilities correspond to three overarching categories of intelligence: the ability to create things of cultural value, problem solving, and the ability to gather knowledge. He informally considers there to be two additional intelligences: existential and pedagogical. 

Many criticize Gardner for his lack of evidence to support his theory, as well as potentially confusing the difference between "intelligence" and "ability." Yet he has inspired many to think about intelligence from a less rigid and more holistic point of view.  

Learned helplessness occurs when a person believes that they have no power to change their life for the better. Thus, Johnny will also have an external locus of control, defined as believing that fate is controlled by external forces (e.g., luck, other people).