A "prototype" is a typical example of a concept. That is, it is a part of the data set that a concept embodies and is most commonly though of when the concept is being referenced. For instance, when we think of the concept of color we will more often think of blue instead of black, where blue is more representative of the concept of "color" then black is.

Although there are many systems of communication present in nature, that doesn't mean they are all considered languages. There are certain properties of human language that make it universally distinct from all other forms of communication. These properties, as laid out by linguists, are generativity, universal comprehension, symbolic representation and rules for how the symbols are combined. The ability to talk about things that are not immediately apparent is included in symbolic representation, which most other systems of communication do not include.

Empiricism states that sensory input informs learning, and that learning is a series of trial and error processes. 

Functionalism is a body of thought that contradicts Chomsky's theory of generative grammar. Functionalism holds that language is ultimately limited and not infinite and generative grammar proposes. Chomsky also proposes there is not particular reason motivating syntax. As in, a noun isn't at the beginning of a sentence because it is particularly more important than any other word. Functionalists believe there are reasons like these motivating and influencing grammar.

The other answers are philosophical bodies of thought that have more to do with human organization and identity than anything to do with language.

Semantic slanting is used when a person wants to say the same thing but affect their listener in a different way. It can be highly manipulative and is often used in advertising or politically sensitive situations. Take as an example the given question, a person gets demoted but is told that they are being "given" a "growth opportunity" as opposed to having their current position taken away from them. Semantic slanting is not always necessarily manipulative. The speaker may regard what they are framing in a different light as true; therefore, he or she will be using semantic slanting in a genuine manner. For instance, if I want to say a person does not look good in a hat, then I might say, "I think other hats suit you better.”

Saying "cart smat" instead of "smart cat" is an example of a sound error. This is because the speaker knows the final sounds of each word is similar and mixes up their initial sounds. This is an easy mistake because the resulting error words sound like they could reasonably be a part of the English language. The other answers were examples of grammatical or content errors.

Before anyone utters a sentence, there is a lot of work involved in order to produce it. This may be misleading due to how fast we speak; however, there are at least four known steps involved in producing sentences. Before anything, we must have a hunch of what we want to say. That is, we must have an idea of the semantics of our sentence, which composes a "deep structure" for us to subsequently impose grammar and phonology.

After we have a "feeling" of what we want to say, the grammatical structure (i.e. the syntax) is formed as a template for the words we will pick. The term "template" means the categories of words that are being used as well as the combinational rules used to arrange them.

After getting a "hunch" of what we want to say, we create the grammatical structure for our sentence. Once that is constructed, it becomes our so-called "template.” We fill this template with semantically relevant words. These words are as specific to the meaning we want to convey as possible. For instance, if we want the person we are speaking to know that the cat we are talking about is a young cat, then we would use the word "kitten" instead of "cat.”

Once we have an idea of what we want to say, create the general structure of our sentence, and select the semantically relevant words to use, we have completed the conceptual part of sentence processing. During the fourth step, we are ready to solve how our sentence will sound. This is a complex process, which involves subconsciously knowing the phonemes and their variants of the language.