The wavelength of light absorbed by a pigment is related to the number of conjugated double bonds in the molecule. The eye will begin to perceive color when the number of conjugated double bonds in a molecule becomes around eight. At this point, the color yellow can be perceived by the eye. In order for -carotene to give carrots a more yellowish color, it must have a change in the number of conjugated double bonds so that the pigment absorbs a shorter wavelength of light. This way, it will emit complementary light with a wavelength closer to yellow on the visible spectrum.

RNA and DNA are hydrophilic substances, and will be found in the aqueous layer after the cells are lysed. Based on molecular weights of water (18), phenol (94), and chloroform (119), it is evident that the aqueous layer will be on the top, denoted as layer 1.

Lipids and other cellular debris are hydrophobic, and can be dissolved in the organic (bottom) layer. We know that the organic solvents will settle in layer 3 due to their relative densities compared to water. Phenol and chloroform are heavier molecules than water, with molecular weights of 94 and 119 respectively, and will thus be found in the bottom layer.

The purpose of a phenol:chloroform extraction is to separate organic and aqueous cellular components. The lysis buffer is an aqueous solution, while the phenol:chloroform extraction solution is organic. Generally, organic solutions are more dense that aqueous solutions, resulting in the aqueous solution being on the top and organic being on the bottom. The interphase consists of proteins containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains.

You can also determine relative density by calculating the molecular weights of the solvents. Doing so will show that water (MW = 18) is much lighter than phenol (MW = 94) or chloroform (MW = 119).

Proteins generally contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains, and therefore, do not completely associate with either the organic or aqueous layers. They can be found in the interphase layer, denoted as layer 2. This allows different domains of the protein to interact with each phase. Hydrophilic regions will interact with the aqueous phase (layer 1), while hydrophobic regions will orient toward the organic phase (layer 3).

After the first extraction, the DNA will be found in the aqueous phase due to its negative charge and hydrophilic nature. Transferring the aqueous phase (with DNA) and adding ethanol and salt will not result in an extraction; there will only be one phase after centrifugation: the aqueous phase. Following centrifugation, the DNA and salt precipitate from the aqueous ethanol solution and form a DNA pellet.

Chiral molecules are a unique type of isomer, defined as two molecules with inverted stereochemistry, which makes them mirror images of one another. These isomers will ahve the same molecular weight, as well as most physical properties. Enatiomers cannot be distinguished based on melting point, heat of vaporization, or density. The primary, defining characteristic of a chiral molecule is its ability to effect plane polarized light. One isomer will rotate the light to the right, while the other will rotate the light to the left.

Myoglobin and hemoglobin are the proteins primarily responsible for binding, transporting, and storing oxygen. Myoglobin is primarily located in muscle tissue, and has a very high affinity for oxygen. Hemoglobin is located in the blood, and has a slightly lower oxygen binding affinity. Thus, as hemoglobin carries oxygen past muscle tissue, oxygen can be released and will preferentially bind to myoglobin. Hemoglobin contains four subunits, each capable of binding one oxygen molecule, while myoglobin consists of only one subunit.

Both hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme units, which structurally and functionally rely on the incorporation of reduced iron. As such, this property cannot be used to differentiate these two proteins.

Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids, lipids do not have a uniform monomer structure. Rather, they are classified by their hydrophobic properties and a variety of beasic structural categorizations. Some examples of lipid classifications are glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, and steroids.

The original racemic mixture will not rotate plane-polarized light. Rotation by each enantiomer will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, cancelling each other out and leading to zero rotation. Enantiomers have the same physical properties, meaning they will boil at the same temperature. As a result, boiling half of the mixture into another beaker does not separate the mixture into two distinct compounds; we have simply created two beakers containing a racemic mixture. This means that neither sample will rotate plane-polarized light.