Which of the following cells would be categorized as an agranulocyte?

Which of the following molecules is not associated with the function of cytotoxic T-cells?

Eosinophils are play a multi-facted role in the innate immune response especially against parasites. They have been shown to phagocytose different parasites, release cytotoxic granule proteins such as major basic protein (MBP), present antigens to T cells, and produce several different cytokines to promote the inflammatory process. 

Eosinophils play a critical role in innate and adaptive immune response against parasitic infections. Which of the following is not a function of eosinophils?

What is the difference between helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells?

Which of these choices is not a function of T-cells?

Sexually transmitted diseases are a common problem among young people in the United States. One of the more common diseases is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which leads to inflammation and purulent discharge in the male and female reproductive tracts.

The bacterium has a number of systems to evade host defenses. Upon infection, it uses pili to adhere to host epithelium. The bacterium also uses an enzyme, gonococcal sialyltransferase, to transfer a sialyic acid residue to a gonococcal surface lipooligosaccharide (LOS). A depiction of this can be seen in Figure 1. The sialyic acid residue mimics the protective capsule found on other bacterial species.

Once infection is established, Neisseria preferentially infects columnar epithelial cells in the female reproductive tract, and leads to a loss of cilia on these cells. Damage to the reproductive tract can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, which can complicate pregnancies later in the life of the woman.

The first line of defense by a human host against a potential Neisseria infection is which of the following?

Which of the following is not an example of innate immunity?

Which of the following is not a component of innate immunity?

Hypersensitivity reactions occur when body tissues are affected by an abnormal immune reaction. The result is damage to normal tissues and clinical illness. A peanut allergy is an example of a hypersensitivity reaction, but there are three additional broad classes.

One class involves the abnormal production or deposition of antibodies. Antibodies are B-cell derived molecules that normally adhere to pathogens, rendering them unable to continue an infection. When antibodies are produced against normal tissues, however, disease can result. Figure 1 depicts a schematic structure of an antibody.

Antibodies can be divided into two peptide chains: heavy and light. Heavy chains form the backbone of the antibody, and are attached to light chains via covalent bonding. Each heavy and light chain is then further divided into constant and variable regions. Variable regions exhibit molecular variety, generating a unique chemical identity for each antibody. These unique patterns help guarantee that the body can produce antibodies to recognize many possible molecular patterns on invading pathogens.

An antibody response is similar to an inflammatory response in that:

I. They are both innate immune responses

II. They are both most effective immediately following the first infection with a pathogen

III. They are both dependent on chemical mediators, such as cytokines, for function

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is an X-linked recessive genetic disorder, resulting in the loss of the dystrophin protein. In healthy muscle, dystrophin localizes to the sarcolemma and helps anchor the muscle fiber to the basal lamina. The loss of this protein results in progressive muscle weakness, and eventually death.

In the muscle fibers, the effects of the disease can be exacerbated by auto-immune interference. Weakness of the sarcolemma leads to damage and tears in the membrane. The body’s immune system recognizes the damage and attempts to repair it. However, since the damage exists as a chronic condition, leukocytes begin to present the damaged protein fragments as antigens, stimulating a targeted attack on the damaged parts of the muscle fiber. The attack causes inflammation, fibrosis, and necrosis, further weakening the muscle.

Studies have shown that despite the severe pathology of the muscle fibers, the innervation of the muscle is unaffected.

Which compound is most likely responsible for initiating the inflammation response that results from the autoimmune attack?