Alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans are responsible for producing and secreting glucagon in response to high blood glucose levels. Insulin antagonizes the alpha cells to prevent glucagon release. In diabetes, when the beta cells of the pancreas are not functional, extremely high levels of glucagon exist in the blood due to loss of the negative feedback loop.

Beta and delta cells in the islets of Langerhans produce insulin and somatostatin, respectively. Neurons release acetylcholine to modulate glucose control through indirect processes.

Epinephrine is released from the adrenal medulla and regulated by the sympathetic system.

Cortisone, progesterone, and thyroxin are regulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), respectively. These regulatory hormones are all released from the anterior pituitary. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to stimulate glucocorticoid release, including cortisone. LH acts on the ovaries to mediate estrogen and progesterone release. TSH acts on the thyroid to mediate the release of T3 and T4. T4 is also known as thyroxine.

Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans are responsible for producing and secreting insulin in response to high blood glucose levels. In type I diabetes these cells are destroyed by an autoimmune process, while in type II diabetes they are replaced with scar tissue.

Alpha and delta cells in the islets of Langerhans produce glucagon and somatostatin, respectively. Neurons release acetylcholine to modulate glucose control through indirect processes.

Because of their nonpolar nature, steroid hormones can easily cross the cell membrane. This enables the hormone to work with its receptor, commonly located inside the cell. Their effects are long-lived since they involve genetic alteration at the transcription level. This, however, also means that steroid hormones take longer than peptide hormones to produce a response. 

Prolactin is an example of a non-tropic hormone released by the anterior pituitary.

All three hormones—luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone—are part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. One should be familiar with this axis and with the fact that testosterone exerts negative control at both the level of the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.

Oxytocin is the only hormone mentioned that is synthesized in the hypothalamus, but secreted by the posterior pituitary.

The test, as described in the passage, simply assays for the presence of hCG in the urine. The person using the test would either obtain a positive or negative result. Whether or not this result is valid remains in question because there are no experimental controls involved. In other words, there is nothing to test whether the test reagents are faulty or the procedure was done incorrectly. A positive control would involve using a sample liquid containing hCG and testing to see whether the pregnancy test could actually detect it. If it can't, then something is wrong. A negative control might involve using a urine sample with no hCG in it and seeing if the test gives a false positive result. Such controls are not included in the test as described in the passage. The other answer choices can be eliminated. The answer: 'is only effective after at least one month of pregnancy' is wrong because the passage states that hCG levels are high enough to be detected by the time of the first missed period (anywhere from 7-14 days from the time of fertilization.)

The answer: 'is inaccurate because hCG can be produced normally in the non-pregnant mother,' can be eliminated because the mother does not produce hCG. If she did, the test would be entirely useless. Only the embryo produces the hormone. The answer choice, 'is inaccurate because hCG is sometimes not produced by the fertilized zygote,' is also incorrect because the embryo must produce hCG in order to prevent menstruation and maintain the corpus luteum. If it doesn't, menstruation will occur and the embryo will be sloughed off with the uterine lining. 

From the passage we learn that hCG is a peptide hormone. Peptide hormones act by binding to receptors on the plasma membranes of their target cells. This binding then triggers a signaling cascade which results in the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones can't cross the plasma membrane directly because they are not lipid soluble. Glucagon is a peptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas; it therefore uses a similar mechanism to that of hCG.The other answer choices can be eliminated because they are steroid hormones. These act by directly crossing the plasma membrane and binding to receptors either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. 

In order to be indicative of pregnancy, a hormone must only be produced either by a mother who is pregnant or the fertilized embryo itself. Otherwise, false test results might be possible. Progesterone is normally produced by females who are not pregnant during the course of their monthly menstrual cycles. It is not purely a hormone associated with pregnancy. The other answer choices do not offer valid explanations why progesterone can't be used.