ISEE Middle Level Reading : Identifying and Analyzing Main Idea and Theme in History Passages
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Example Questions
Example Question #11 : Identifying And Analyzing Main Idea And Theme In History Passages
"Newton's Mistakes" by Daniel Morrison (2014)
Isaac Newton has often been thought of as the greatest thinker in human history. His insight into the role that gravity plays in existence and physics completely changed our collective understanding of the universe and our place in it. He was understood in his own time as a genius. One famous quote by Alexander Pope (himself quite an intelligent man) demonstrates the deep affection felt for Newton: “Nature, and nature’s mysteries, lay bathed in night, God said 'Let there be Newton,’ and all was light.”
Yet, when the famous economist John Kenneth Galbraith purchased Newton’s journals and diaries at auction, he found to his astonishment, and partial dismay, that more than half of Newton’s work was dedicated to the practice of alchemy—the pursuit of turning ordinary materials into precious metals. Our current understanding of science tells us that this is impossible and that Newton was wasting a significant proportion of his time.
Another famous story about Newton tells of his attempts to figure out the effect of direct exposure to sunlight on the human eye. To carry out this experiment he decided to stare at the sun for as long as humanly possible to see what would happen. The effect, as you might have guessed, was that he very nearly went permanently blind and was indeed completely unable to see for two days.
One might determine from these stories that Newton was not the genius we consider him to be—that he was, in fact, a fool; however, it should tell us something about the nature of genius. It is not merely deep intelligence, but the willingness to try new things and the rejection of the fear of failure. Newton was not a genius in spite of his mistakes, but because of them.
What is most likely the author’s purpose in writing this article?
To make his audience laugh
To impart a lesson
To refute an argument
To tell a story
To describe a historical figure
To impart a lesson
When you are asked to determine the purpose of an article, it is sort of like being asked to consider the main argument of the article, as well as the manner in which it is concluded and the author’s tone throughout. The bulk of this article is describing the historical figure Isaac Newton, but this is not the author’s purpose in writing the article. Isaac Newton is used as a means for the author to “impart a lesson," namely the lesson that genius is not exclusive from foolishness, and that some people are geniuses not because they never make mistakes or know everything, but because they are not afraid to try new things and make mistakes along the way. This is how the passage concludes, which always gives a significant clue into the author’s primary purpose.
Example Question #1 : Main Idea
"Newton's Mistakes" by Daniel Morrison (2014)
Isaac Newton has often been thought of as the greatest thinker in human history. His insight into the role that gravity plays in existence and physics completely changed our collective understanding of the universe and our place in it. He was understood in his own time as a genius. One famous quote by Alexander Pope (himself quite an intelligent man) demonstrates the deep affection felt for Newton: “Nature, and nature’s mysteries, lay bathed in night, God said 'Let there be Newton,’ and all was light.”
Yet, when the famous economist John Kenneth Galbraith purchased Newton’s journals and diaries at auction, he found to his astonishment, and partial dismay, that more than half of Newton’s work was dedicated to the practice of alchemy—the pursuit of turning ordinary materials into precious metals. Our current understanding of science tells us that this is impossible and that Newton was wasting a significant proportion of his time.
Another famous story about Newton tells of his attempts to figure out the effect of direct exposure to sunlight on the human eye. To carry out this experiment he decided to stare at the sun for as long as humanly possible to see what would happen. The effect, as you might have guessed, was that he very nearly went permanently blind and was indeed completely unable to see for two days.
One might determine from these stories that Newton was not the genius we consider him to be—that he was, in fact, a fool; however, it should tell us something about the nature of genius. It is not merely deep intelligence, but the willingness to try new things and the rejection of the fear of failure. Newton was not a genius in spite of his mistakes, but because of them.
The main argument of this essay is __________.
That Newton was a genius because of his willingness to make mistakes, not in spite of this
That in spite of his many breathtaking achievements, Newton should be best remembered for his foolishness
That the pursuit of alchemy ultimately led to the intellectual ruin of Isaac Newton
That Newton’s contributions to science make him the greatest mind in human history
That genius is born, not made
That Newton was a genius because of his willingness to make mistakes, not in spite of this
Throughout this essay, the author is primarily contrasting Newton’s scientific contributions and esteemed reputation with examples of his whimsy and foolishness in order to lead the reader to his main argument and conclusion. This is, “But, really it should tell us something about the nature of genius. It is not merely deep intelligence, but the willingness to try new things and the rejection of the fear of failure. Newton was not a genius in spite of his mistakes, but because of them.” So, the correct answer is “That Newton was a genius because of his willingness to make mistakes, not in spite of this.”
Example Question #11 : History Passages
Adapted from The Story of Mankind by Hendrik Van Loon (1921)
During the first twenty years of his life, young Napoleon was a professional Corsican patriot—a Corsican Sinn Feiner, who hoped to deliver his beloved country from the yoke of the bitterly hated French enemy. But the French revolution had unexpectedly recognised the claims of the Corsicans and gradually Napoleon, who had received a good training at the military school of Brienne, drifted into the service of his adopted country. Although he never learned to spell French correctly or to speak it without a broad Italian accent, he became a Frenchman. In due time he came to stand as the highest expression of all French virtues. At present he is regarded as the symbol of the Gallic genius.
Napoleon was what is called a fast worker. His career does not cover more than twenty years. In that short span of time he fought more wars and gained more victories and marched more miles and conquered more square kilometers and killed more people and brought about more reforms and generally upset Europe to a greater extent than anybody (including Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan) had ever managed to do.
He was a little fellow and during the first years of his life his health was not very good. He never impressed anybody by his good looks and he remained to the end of his days very clumsy whenever he was obliged to appear at a social function. He did not enjoy a single advantage of breeding or birth or riches. For the greater part of his youth he was desperately poor and often he had to go without a meal or was obliged to make a few extra pennies in curious ways.
He gave little promise as a literary genius. When he competed for a prize offered by the Academy of Lyons, his essay was found to be next to the last and he was number 15 out of 16 candidates. But he overcame all these difficulties through his absolute and unshakable belief in his own destiny, and in his own glorious future. Ambition was the main-spring of his life. The thought of self, the worship of that capital letter "N" with which he signed all his letters, and which recurred forever in the ornaments of his hastily constructed palaces, the absolute will to make the name Napoleon the most important thing in the world next to the name of God, these desires carried Napoleon to a pinnacle of fame which no other man has ever reached.
Which of the following best states the main idea of the passage?
Napoleon does not deserve the accolades that have been poured on him by historians.
Napoleon was a self-made man who rose to prominence through an unflinching belief in his own greatness.
Napoleon was disadvantaged throughout his whole life and made it to the top through a combination of hard work and miraculous luck.
The French Revolution produced the unique circumstances that allowed someone like Napoleon to rise to power.
Without Napoleon, Europe would be a much different place.
Napoleon was a self-made man who rose to prominence through an unflinching belief in his own greatness.
Many of these statements are part of the author’s argument, like that the French revolution allowed Napoleon to rise to power and that without Napoleon, Europe would be very different. However, only one answer captures the author’s main argument throughout the passage: “Napoleon was a self-made man who rose to prominence through an unflinching belief in his own greatness.“ The author spends much of the passage describing how the circumstances of Napoleon’s life did not favor his rise to greatness and then focuses in the concluding paragraph on how Napoleon’s self-belief played an enormous role in his rise to greatness. If you are ever unable to determine the main idea of a passage, it is wise to pay extra attention to the opening and concluding paragraphs because it is in these two sections that the author usually ties together his or her argument most clearly.
Example Question #1 : Analyzing Details In Humanities Passages
Adapted from The Story of Mankind by Hendrik Van Loon (1921)
During the first twenty years of his life, young Napoleon was a professional Corsican patriot—a Corsican Sinn Feiner, who hoped to deliver his beloved country from the yoke of the bitterly hated French enemy. But the French revolution had unexpectedly recognised the claims of the Corsicans and gradually Napoleon, who had received a good training at the military school of Brienne, drifted into the service of his adopted country. Although he never learned to spell French correctly or to speak it without a broad Italian accent, he became a Frenchman. In due time he came to stand as the highest expression of all French virtues. At present he is regarded as the symbol of the Gallic genius.
Napoleon was what is called a fast worker. His career does not cover more than twenty years. In that short span of time he fought more wars and gained more victories and marched more miles and conquered more square kilometers and killed more people and brought about more reforms and generally upset Europe to a greater extent than anybody (including Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan) had ever managed to do.
He was a little fellow and during the first years of his life his health was not very good. He never impressed anybody by his good looks and he remained to the end of his days very clumsy whenever he was obliged to appear at a social function. He did not enjoy a single advantage of breeding or birth or riches. For the greater part of his youth he was desperately poor and often he had to go without a meal or was obliged to make a few extra pennies in curious ways.
He gave little promise as a literary genius. When he competed for a prize offered by the Academy of Lyons, his essay was found to be next to the last and he was number 15 out of 16 candidates. But he overcame all these difficulties through his absolute and unshakable belief in his own destiny, and in his own glorious future. Ambition was the main-spring of his life. The thought of self, the worship of that capital letter "N" with which he signed all his letters, and which recurred forever in the ornaments of his hastily constructed palaces, the absolute will to make the name Napoleon the most important thing in the world next to the name of God, these desires carried Napoleon to a pinnacle of fame which no other man has ever reached.
According to the author Napoleon was primarily inspired by __________.
the glories of battle
the betterment of the European people
the glories of battle
the Corsican independence movement
the advancement of the French nation
the Corsican independence movement
personal ambition
the betterment of the European people
personal ambition
the advancement of the French nation
personal ambition
In the final paragraph, the author makes it clear that although Napoleon was inspired by the Corsican independence movement, the betterment of Europe, the glories of battle, and the advancement of France, he was primarily inspired by his personal ambition. The author says, “But he overcame all these difficulties through his absolute and unshakable belief in his own destiny, and in his own glorious future. Ambition was the main-spring of his life.”
Example Question #11 : Isee Middle Level (Grades 7 8) Reading Comprehension
Adapted from Scientific American Supplement No. 1178 Vol. XLV (June 25th, 1898)
The United States “regular" is in many respects the least-equipped foot soldier of my acquaintance. This was my reflection as I overhauled the kit of a private this morning. There was not a single brush in his knapsack. I counted three in that of a Spanish foot soldier only a few weeks ago. The American’s knapsack is not intended to be carried on any extended marches, although the total weight he is ever called upon to carry is only 50 pounds, a good 12 pounds less than what is carried by German privates. The men of this regiment carry an overcoat with a cape, amongst other things; on this expedition overcoats are a superfluity, and it is absurd that troops should be sent to the tropics in summer wearing exactly the same uniform they would be using throughout the winter on the frontiers of Canada. This war will, no doubt, produce a change after English models.
Now, as to discipline in the American army I cannot speak at present, for the war is yet too young. It may, however, be worth noting that in this particular regiment, while most complete liberty was allowed the men all the twelve days of the rail journey from San Francisco to Tampa, not a single breach of discipline was reported. The firing discipline during the three times we have been under fire has been excellent; the obedience of soldiers to their officers has been as prompt and intelligent as anything I have seen in Europe; and as to coolness under fire and accuracy of aim, what I have seen is most satisfactory.
All this I note, because I have more than once heard European officers question the possibility of making an army out of elements different from those to which they were accustomed. I have heard Germans insist that unless the officer appears in uniform he cannot command the respect of his men. On this ship it would be frequently difficult to tell officers from men when the tunic is laid aside and shoulder straps are not seen. But we must go a little beneath the surface and see things, not on the parade ground, but in actual war. For the American parade uniform has been designed by a lot of unsoldierly politicians and tailors about Washington. They have made the patient United States army a victim of their vulgar designs. On the battlefield, however, there are no political tailors, and the Washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded.
The main idea of this passage is that __________.
The discipline of the American army is unmatched anywhere in the world, even in Europe.
The United States is engaged in a war that it is unprepared to win.
In order to match the organizational skills of the English and German armies, the armies of the United States need to improve their equipment.
In spite of the deficiencies in American army uniform and equipment, the discipline and order of the army is nonetheless exemplary.
The author’s first impressions of the American army were proven ridiculous by the exemplary behavior he later observed.
In spite of the deficiencies in American army uniform and equipment, the discipline and order of the army is nonetheless exemplary.
The main idea of this passage is twofold: firstly, that the American army is poorly equipped and outfitted, but, additionally and conversely, that the discipline and order of the army is actually very impressive. This can be seen throughout, particularly in the transition from the first paragraph to the second. It is most clearly demonstrated in the concluding paragraph where the author iterates the disastrous state of the American army’s uniform whilst conversely discussing the impressive nature of American army discipline. The final lines show this duality most succinctly: “[Politicians and tailors] have made the patient United States army a victim of their vulgar designs. On the battlefield, however, there are no political tailors, and the Washington dress regulations are ruthlessly disregarded.”
Example Question #11 : History Passages
Adapted from Scientific American Supplement No. 841 Vol. XXXIII (February 13th 1892)
From the earliest times of which we have record, man has been disposed to strive with his fellow man, either to maintain his own rights or to possess himself of some rights or material advantage enjoyed by others. When one or only a few men encroach on the rights of others in an organized community, they may be restrained by the legal machinery of the state, such as courts, police, and prisons, but when a whole community or state rises against another, the civil law becomes powerless and a state of war ensues. It is not proposed here to discuss the ethics of this question, nor the desirability of providing a suitable court of nations for settling all international difficulties without war. The great advantage of such a system of avoiding war is admitted by all intelligent people. We notice here a singular inconsistency in the principles upon which this strife is carried on, viz.: If it be a single combat, either a friendly contest or a deadly one, the parties are expected to contest on equal terms as nearly as may be arranged; but if large numbers are engaged, or in other words, when the contest becomes war, the rule is reversed and each party is expected to take every possible advantage of his adversary, even to the extent of stratagem or deception. In fact, it has passed into a proverb that "all things are fair in love and war."
The main idea of this passage is __________.
to suggest that the legal machinery of the state is often inadequate
to ridicule those who argue against the United Nations
to discuss why and how conflict, both small and large, is carried out
to comment on the differences between small- and large-scale combat
to suggest the adoption of a global governing body to mediate conflict
to discuss why and how conflict, both small and large, is carried out
It is true that the author comments on the need for a global governing body, but he also says, “it is not proposed here to discuss the ethics of this question," so we know this is not the main idea. It is also true that the author discusses the difference between small- and large-scale combat, but this appears at the end of the passage and is only loosely related to the author’s comments at the beginning. What we can therefore say is that the main idea of this passage is simply to discuss why and how conflict occurs. This answer choice is supported by the whole of the passage.
Example Question #1 : Understanding Main Ideas In Social Science Passages
Adapted from Scientific American Supplement No. 1157 Vol. XLV (March 5th, 1898)
Since William II of Germany ascended the throne as German Emperor and King of Prussia on June 15, 1888, the eyes of Europe have been fixed on him. The press of the world delights in showing up his weak points, and the "war lord" undoubtedly has them, but, at the same time, he has qualities which are to be admired and which make him conspicuous among the rulers of Europe.
He is popular in Germany, and it is not surprising, for, in spite of being autocratic to the last degree, he is honest, courageous, ambitious, hard working, and a thorough German, being intensely patriotic. Indeed, if the people of Germany had the right to vote, they would undoubtedly choose their present ruler, for, while the virtues we have named may seem commonplace, they are not so when embodied in an emperor. One thing which places William at a disadvantage is his excessive frankness. His mistakes have largely resulted from his impulsive nature coupled with chauvinism, which is, perhaps, excusable, in a ruler.
Since the time when William was a child, he evidenced a strong desire to become acquainted with the details of the office to which his lofty birth entitled him. In the army he has worked his way up like any other officer and has a firm grasp on all the multifarious details of the military establishment of the great country. He believes in militarism, or in force, to use a more common expression, but in this he is right, for it has taken two hundred and fifty years to bring Prussia to the position it now holds, and what it has gained at the point of the sword must be retained in the same way. The immense sacrifices which the people make to support the army and navy are deemed necessary for self-preservation, and with France on one side and Russia on the other, there really seems to be ample excuse for it.
The main idea of this passage is best summarized as __________.
William II is perfectly fit for the office of emperor, notwithstanding his excessive frankness.
William II is the greatest and most powerful ruler in Europe and is deserving of more respect than he receives.
William II is a danger to the rest of Europe due to his excessive militarism.
William II is a rare and virtuous ruler who embodies all the best qualities of his subjects.
William II, despite being of foreign birth, perfectly captures the spirit of contemporary Germany.
William II is a rare and virtuous ruler who embodies all the best qualities of his subjects.
Only two of these answer choices are wholly incorrect—the author does not argue that William II is a danger to the rest of Europe, nor does he suggest that William II is of foreign birth. Once you have eliminated those two answer choices it becomes a case of selecting which answer choice is best. The author spends a great deal of time focusing on the rare virtues that William II possesses and this seems to be the primary theme of this text: that William is a rare emperor in his time. The author does not outright suggest that William II is the greatest or most powerful ruler, so this answer choice can also be eliminated as not the best. Finally, the author does mention William’s excessive frankness, but this is far from the main idea of the text. On the other hand, that William is a rare and virtuous ruler who embodies the best German qualities seems to be an argument that the author maintains throughout. This is best seen in excerpts such as “He is popular in Germany, and it is not surprising, for, in spite of being autocratic to the last degree, he is honest, courageous, ambitious, hard working, and a thorough German, being intensely patriotic. Indeed, if the people of Germany had the right to vote, they would undoubtedly choose their present ruler, for, while the virtues we have named may seem commonplace, they are not so when embodied in an emperor.”
Example Question #1 : Drawing Conclusions In Science Passages
Adapted from "The Treatment of Rattlesnake Bite by Permanganate of Potassium, Based on Nine Successful Cases" by Amos W. Barber, M.D. in Scientific American Supplement No. 841, Vol. XXXIII (February 13th 1892)
Poisoned wounds, inflicted by the fangs of the rattlesnake, are happily rarer each year, since, as the country is becoming more populated, the crotalus is rapidly being exterminated. Yet, considering the disregard that characterizes the cowboy in his treatment of this reptile, it is astonishing that this class of injury is not more common.
It is the invariable custom among the cattlemen to dismount and destroy these snakes whenever they are seen. This is readily accomplished, since a slight blow will break the back. This blow is, however, generally delivered by means of the quirt, a whip not over two and a half feet long, and hence a weapon which brings the one who wields it in unpleasant proximity to the fangs of the reptile. A still more dangerous practice, and one which I have frequently seen, is a method of playing with the rattlesnake for the humor of the cowboy at the expense of a "tenderfoot." It is well known that unless a snake is coiled or in other specific positions, it cannot strike. On this theory, a mounted cowboy first puts a rattler to flight, then seizes it by the tail, and, swinging it so rapidly around his head that it is impossible for it to strike, sets off in pursuit of whoever has exhibited the most terror at the sight of the reptile. When within fair distance, he hurls the snake at the unfortunate victim, in the full assurance that even should it hit him it cannot bury its fangs in his flesh, since it cannot coil until it reaches the ground. This is a jest of which I have frequently been the victim, nor have I yet learned to appreciate it with unalloyed mirth.
The first case of rattlesnake wound to which I was called occurred in 1885. A cowboy was bitten on the foot, the fang penetrating through the boot. I saw him about twenty-four hours after he was struck. There was enormous swelling, extending up to the knee. There was no special discoloration about the wound; in fact, the swelling disguised this to such an extent that it was impossible to determine exactly where the fangs had entered. The patient was suffering great pain. His mind was clear, but he was oppressed with a dreadful anxiety.
Considering the passage in light of the title of the article from which it was taken, what can you infer happened to the cowboy that the author treated?
He perished from the snakebite he received because he was not brought to the author quickly enough.
He perished from the wound before the author could attempt to treat him.
He lost his leg due to the author's use of permanganate of potassium.
The author treated him with permanganate of potassium and he made a full recovery.
He perished from the snakebite he received because the doctor tried a new treatment on him that did not work.
The author treated him with permanganate of potassium and he made a full recovery.
The title of the article from which the passage is taken is crucial to correctly answering this question: "The Treatment of Rattlesnake Bite by Permanganate of Potassium, Based on Nine Successful Cases." The fact that the author is writing an article about how to treat rattlesnake bites with permanganate of potassium suggests this is the treatment he tried on the cowboy he is describing in the third paragraph. Furthermore, we can infer that because the article is "Based on Nine Successful Cases," the cowboy described in the third paragraph must have made a full recovery. (This is indeed what the author describes in the full article.
Example Question #31 : Main Idea
Adapted from A Modern History from the Time of Luther to the Fall of Napoleon by John Lord (1874)
For more than ten centuries, great struggles have been going on in society between the dominant orders and sects. The victories gained by the oppressed millions over their different masters, constitute what is called the progress of society. When any great order defended the cause of the people against the tyranny and selfishness of another order, then the people have advanced a step in civil and social freedom.
When feudalism weighed heavily upon the people, the clergy sought justice on their behalf. By the aid of the church, royalty also rose above feudalism, and aided the popular cause. The church, having gained the ascendency, sought then to enslave the kings of the earth. But royalty, borrowing help from humiliated nobles and from the people, became the dominant power in Europe.
In these struggles, the people acquired political importance. They had obtained a knowledge of their rights and of their strength; and they were determined to maintain them. They liked not the tyranny of either nobles, priests, or kings; but they bent all their energies to suppress the power of the latter, since the two former had been already humiliated.
The struggle of the people against royalty is preeminently the genius of the English Revolution. It is to be doubted whether any king could have resisted the storm of popular fury which hurled Charles from his throne. But no king could have managed worse than he; no king could be more unfortunately and unpropitiously placed, and his own imprudence and folly hastened the catastrophe.
The House of Commons, which had acquired great strength, spirit, and popularity during the reign of James, fully perceived the difficulties and necessities of Charles, but made no adequate or generous effort to relieve him from them. Some of the more turbulent rejoiced in them. They knew that kings, like other men, were selfish, and that it was not natural for people to part with their privileges and power without a struggle, even though this power was injurious to the interests of society. In the Middle Ages, barons, bishops, and popes had fought desperately in the struggle of classes; and it was only from their necessities that either kings or people had obtained what they demanded. King Charles, no more than Pope Boniface VIII, would surrender, as a boon to man, without compulsion, his supposed omnipotence.
According to the author, “social progress” is defined by __________.
the replacement of faith with scientific reason
the victories achieved by the oppressed over their oppressors
the greater recognition of universal human rights
the advancement of the clergy as opposed to the nobles or kings
the increasing influence of religion upon people’s lives
the victories achieved by the oppressed over their oppressors
In the opening paragraph, the author says, “The victories gained by the oppressed millions over their different masters constitute what is called the progress of society.” You can clearly see that, to the author, “social progress” is defined by the victories achieved by the oppressed over their oppressors. From the surrounding context, you might infer that the correct answer should be to do with religion or the clergy specifically, but this is just an example the author gives of how “social progress” has been achieved.
Example Question #1 : Main Ideas In Social Science Passages
Adapted from A Modern History from the Time of Luther to the Fall of Napoleon by John Lord (1874)
For more than ten centuries, great struggles have been going on in society between the dominant orders and sects. The victories gained by the oppressed millions over their different masters, constitute what is called the progress of society. When any great order defended the cause of the people against the tyranny and selfishness of another order, then the people have advanced a step in civil and social freedom.
When feudalism weighed heavily upon the people, the clergy sought justice on their behalf. By the aid of the church, royalty also rose above feudalism, and aided the popular cause. The church, having gained the ascendency, sought then to enslave the kings of the earth. But royalty, borrowing help from humiliated nobles and from the people, became the dominant power in Europe.
In these struggles, the people acquired political importance. They had obtained a knowledge of their rights and of their strength; and they were determined to maintain them. They liked not the tyranny of either nobles, priests, or kings; but they bent all their energies to suppress the power of the latter, since the two former had been already humiliated.
The struggle of the people against royalty is preeminently the genius of the English Revolution. It is to be doubted whether any king could have resisted the storm of popular fury which hurled Charles from his throne. But no king could have managed worse than he; no king could be more unfortunately and unpropitiously placed, and his own imprudence and folly hastened the catastrophe.
The House of Commons, which had acquired great strength, spirit, and popularity during the reign of James, fully perceived the difficulties and necessities of Charles, but made no adequate or generous effort to relieve him from them. Some of the more turbulent rejoiced in them. They knew that kings, like other men, were selfish, and that it was not natural for people to part with their privileges and power without a struggle, even though this power was injurious to the interests of society. In the Middle Ages, barons, bishops, and popes had fought desperately in the struggle of classes; and it was only from their necessities that either kings or people had obtained what they demanded. King Charles, no more than Pope Boniface VIII, would surrender, as a boon to man, without compulsion, his supposed omnipotence.
According to the author, how did the people primarily realize their political importance?
By manipulating the power struggles between the various controlling orders to suit the advancement of universal interests.
By currying favor with the clergy by resisting the influence of the nobility.
Through the extension of human rights achieved by the House of Commons.
Through the spread of literature and literacy in Renaissance Europe.
None of these answers is correct; the author believes the people have still yet to realize their political importance.
By manipulating the power struggles between the various controlling orders to suit the advancement of universal interests.
Many of these answer choices are specific examples of how the people have advanced their rights and privileges, but only one answer represents the broad and primary means by which the common man has advanced throughout history. This is the answer choice "By manipulating the power struggles between the various controlling orders to suit the advancement of universal interests." Evidence for this answer choice can be seen primarily when the author says, “In these struggles, the people had acquired political importance. They had obtained a knowledge of their rights and of their strength, and they were determined to maintain them.”
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