Cranial nerve VIII is also known as the vestibulococchlear nerve. It performs sensory functions, transmitting sound and equilibrium information from the inner ear to the brain. Cranial nerve VI is also known as the abducens nerve. It performs motor functions, controlling the movement of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. Cranial nerve XI is also known as the accessory nerve. It performs motor functions, controlling the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. Lastly, cranial nerve VII is also known as the facial nerve. It performs both sensory and motor functions, controlling the muscles of facial expression and conveying taste sensations from the tongue and oral cavity.

The twelve cranial nerves and their origins are given below:

I-Olfactory nerve; origin: frontal lobe

II-Optic nerve; origin: thalamus

III-Ophthalmic nerve; origin: midbrain

IV-Trochlear nerve; origin: midbrain

V-Trigeminal nerve; origin: pons

VI-Abducens nerve; origin: pons

VII-Facial nerve; origin: pons

VIII-Vestibulocochlear nerve; origin: pons

IX-Glossopharyngeal nerve; origin: medulla

X-Vagus nerve; origin: medulla

XI-Spinal Accessory nerve; origin: medulla

XII-Hypoglossal nerve; origin: medulla

The nerves to originate in the pons are V, VI, VII, and VIII (the trigeminal, abducens, facial, and vestibulocochlear nerves).

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the "rest and digest" mechanism. When the body is at rest the following occurs: pupils constrict (ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve), lacrimation and salivation occur (facial nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve), heart rate decreases, respiration rate decreases, and digestion increases (vagus nerve).

In addition to the cranial nerves, sacral nerves 2-4 (pelvic splanchnic nerves) carry parasympathic fibers that control erections, the bladder, and the bowels.

The facial nerve (CN VII) is responsible for the sensation of taste on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. CN IX, the glossopharyngeal nerve, is responsible for posterior sensation. CN V, the trigeminal nerve, is also involved in certain sensations throughout the tongue.

There are twelve cranial nerves. They are given in order below, with their associated functional classes.

CN I - olfactory nerve - sensory

CN II - optic nerve - sensory

CN III - occulomotor nerve - motor

CN IV - trochlear nerve - motor

CN V - trigeminal nerve - both sensory and motor

CN VI - abducens nerve - motor

CN VII - facial nerve - both sensory and motor

CN VIII - vestibulocochlear nerve - sensory

CN IX - glossopharyngeal nerve - both sensory and motor

CN X - vagus nerve - both sensory and motor

CN XI - accessory nerve - motor

CN XII - hypoglossal nerve - motor

Cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, and 10 are all responsible for parasympathetic nuclei of the brainstem. Oculomotor CN 3 contains the Edinger-Westphal nucleus which controls the eye smooth muscles (which if damaged would result in a dilated pupil that would not constrict in bright light). Facial CN 7 controls the superior salivatory nucleus which controls the submandibular, sublingual, and lacrimal gland secretion. Glossopharyngeal CN 9 innervates the parotid gland secretions. The vagus CN 10 innervates the heart and lungs down into the chest cavity. Helpful hint** - Students often confuse the superior and inferior salivatory nuclei, remember that on the brainstem the facial nerve exits superior to the glossopharyngeal nerve and thus how it is properly named for their nuclei.

Slow twitch fibers are located within muscles used for endurance and posture. They have a red coloring due to an abundance of myoglobin and participate in aerobic glycolysis. Slow twitch fibers contain large amounts of mitochondria and fewer glycolytic enzymes in order to enhance ATP production and maintain contractions for longe periods of time. Slow twitch fibers are associated with endurance fitness, such as running a marathon, and prolonged postural contractions, such as the muscles that keep the spine and neck erect.

Fast twitch fibers are located within muscles used for spurt and explosive excercises. They have a white coloring due to a lack in myoglobin and participate in anaerobic glycolysis. Fast twitch fibers contain fewer mitochondria and more glycolytic enzymes, aiding in rapid (but unsastainable) energy production. Fast twitch fibers are associated with speed and agility fitness, such as a sprinting a short distance.

Most skeletal muscles have origins closer to the midline than their insertions. The bone from which the muscle originates is typically held steady, while the bone onto which the muscle inserts is pulled toward the origin point of the muscle during flexion. For example, the biceps brachii originate on the scapula and insert on the radius. When activated, the biceps brachii pull the radius toward the scapula.

Gap junctions only occur in skeletal and smooth muscle. Through gap junctions, the signal from the neuron to contract may diffuse throughout the muscle, causing wave-like contraction of smooth and/or cardiac muscle.

Intercalated discs are found only in cardiac muscle; they add structural stability to cardiac muscle, and help the propagation of action potentials due to gap junctions. The other features listed are features common to both skeletal and cardiac muscle.