There are two equations for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

Using the first equation, we can substitute in 0.85 for  and solve to get .

We can then use the second equation to find the frequencies of each genotype.

 = frequency of  genotype

 = frequency of  genotype

(Why do we multiply by 2? Because we must count both  and  as heterozygotes.)

 = frequency of  genotype

Thus we get .

Recall that under Hardy-Weinberg conditions, the allele frequencies remain constant. The formulas for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are:

and

Here,  is the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype,  is the frequency of the heterozygous genotype, and  is the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype. Since we have all the variables we need, and we want to find the genotypic frequencies (not the phenotypic) we plug into the second equation.

Be sure to check to make sure these frequencies add up to 1.

Recall that under Hardy-Weinberg conditions, the allele frequencies remain constant. The formulas for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are:

and

Here,  is the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype,  is the frequency of the heterozygous genotype, and  is the frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype. Since we have all the variables we need, and we want to find the genotypic frequencies (not the phenotypic) we plug into the second equation.

Be sure to check to make sure these frequencies add up to 1.

To begin, we must know that we are working with the Hardy-Weinberg equations:

We can designate the dominant allele (L) as  and the recessive allele (l) as . 

Since the frequency of L was given (0.4) we know the the frequency of l must be:

Now we have both allele frequencies and can plug them into the equation:

So for , LL (homozygous dominant), is equal to 0.16

for , Ll (heterozygous), is equal to 0.48

for , ll (homozygous recessive), is equal to 0.36

A frameshift mutation indicates that the reading frame of the sequence in altered, resulting in production of different codons downstream of the mutation. Because codons are encoded by groups of three nucleotides, a frameshift mutation results from the insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides that is not a multiple of three.

For example:

ATG-CGT

Add one nucleotide: ATT-GCG-T

Add two nucleotides: ATT-CGC-GT

Add three nucleotides: ATT-CAG-CGT

In the first two additions, there are unpaired nucleotides that will shift the reading frame. In the final addition (three nucleotides), the final group is complete; thus, any codons after the mutation (downstream) will not be affected.

A nonsense involves the addition of a premature stop codon. A missense mutation results in a different codon, and changes the primary structure of the protein. A silent mutation alters the DNA sequence without altering the amino acid result.

If a mutation does not alter the amino acid sequence of a protein, it is considered a silent mutation. A neutral mutation changes the amino acid, but not the function of the protein. Both frameshift and nonsense mutations can severely affect the function and structure of a protein.

A missense mutation results in the presence of a different amino acid than was encoded by the parental sequence. This type of mutation can have a drastic effect or no effect at all depending on the importance of the amino acid and the type of amino acid that replaces it. Some amino acids are structurally similar and may be able to act as viable substitutes for each other. For example, changing one acidic amino acid to another may ot affect the final protein, but changing a polar amino acid to a nonpolar amino acid will likely disrupt the structure.

A nonsense mutation results in the addition of a premature stop codon, creating a truncated protein product. A silent mutation is a mutation that occurs within the DNA sequence, but does not alter the amino acid sequence. Silent mutations can occur in introns, which are spliced out before translation. Finally, a frameshift mutation is an insertion or deletion of a nucleotide sequence that alters the reading frame of the gene.

A point mutation that substitutes a single nucleotide within a gene alters the three nucleotides that make up an individual codon. There are four possible nucleotides and sixty-four possible codons, formed by 3-nucleotide sequences. Codons code for translation to one of the twenty amino acids. Changing a single nucleotide in the codon can have one of three effects.

First, it can result in a silent mutation. This is a result of the degeneracy of the genetic code, in which multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. Even though the sequence is different, the same amino acid is added. For example, if the sequence is initially CCT it will code for proline. If a mutation changes it to CCC it will still code for proline.

The second option is a missense mutation. In this case, the change in DNA sequence results in a codon for a different amino acid. For example, a mutation from TTT to TCT will change the amino acid from phenylalanine to serine.

Finally, the mutation could change a codon to a stop codon, causing early termination of translation. This is a nonsense mutation. For example, changing the TAT codon for tyrosine to TAA will result in an mRNA stop codon.

No matter how the point mutation affects the final protein product and codon sequence, it will still be transcribed into mRNA.

A nonsense mutation results in a stop codon. This can be the result of an insertion or a deletion, causing a change in the DNA sequence from a normal amino acid codon to one of the three possible stop codon sequences.

A missense mutation changes the identity of a codon from one amino acid to another, resulting in a change to the protein primary structure. A silent mutation occurs when a mutation does not change the amino acid coded for by that codon. A frameshift mutation is an insertion or deletion that changes the reading frame of the entire protein and can have severe detrimental effects. A radioactive mutation is not a specific classification of mutations. 

This mutation is dominant because whatever mutation occurred at the genomic level was sufficient to cause an amino acid switch, i.e., it was expressed. If this were recessive, we would see that the nucleotide base change would not have yielded a knock out. Recall that only one copy of a "bad" gene is required for it to be expressed if it is a dominant mutation, whereas two copies of the "bad" gene are required for it to be expressed if it is a recessive mutation. No information is provided to consider sex linked traits.