Zheng He was a eunuch and an admiral of the Chinese fleet during the early Ming Dynasty. Between 1405-1433 Zheng He conducted a series of expeditionary voyages in South Asia and East Africa. He is responsible for spreading the influence of Chinese culture and for demonstrating the growing power of the Chinese State. He was a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, but following the latter’s death his voyages were discontinued. The “treasure voyages” of Zheng He present an interesting alternative historical development — one where China, instead of Europe, was the first to arrive and colonize North America.

During the Heian period of Japanese history much of the power was concentrated in the hands of the wealthy Fujiwara clan. The Fujiwara clan was able to marry into imperial house of Japan and control national politics to suit their interests.

The Tokugawa Period (also called the Edo Period) of Japanese history lasted from 1603 until 1868 (and the Meiji Restoration). Prior to the rule of the Tokugawa Shogunate political power in Japan was heavily decentralized and the country was ruled and administered by various warlords and wealthy landowners. The Tokugawa Shogunate united the country and brought to an end the fractious rule of feudalism.

The Capetian Dynasty ruled over the modern-day kingdom of France from the tenth century, beginning with Hugh Capet, until the fourteenth century. The Capetian Dynasty was instrumental in the formation of the modern French state.

The Yuan Dynasty was founded by the Mongol warlord Kublai Khan in 1271. It served as an imperial dynasty of China throughout Mongol occupation. The Yuan Dynasty began to decline in the mid-fourteenth century and, after a series of famines and rebellions, was overthrown and replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.

Western European history from the eleventh century onwards witnessed the gradual development of the nation-state. The idea of the nation-state first emerged with the Concordat of Worms and was later solidified by the Peace of Westphalia. In medieval Europe the rise and power of nation-states was generally due to the emergence of powerful monarchies that could effectively coordinate the resources of the entire country they reigned over. Standing armies and a system of taxation were necessary to ensure the power of the monarchy and to minimize the influence of the nobility (who would otherwise be empowered by the responsibility to provide for the defense and finances of the realm).

After William the Conqueror took control of the Kingdom of England he organized his new territory into a tightly-controlled feudal system. William concentrated power in his own hands and ensured that only nobles loyal to his reign could hold land, titles, and power. In 1086 William compiled the Domesday Book, which was sort of like a census, to provide a full account of his holdings in England.

Despite their apparently violent and barbaric nature, the Mongols were also capable administrators and ruled over a vast territory comprised of hundreds of different peoples and cultural traditions. Part of the Mongols’ relative success came from the ease with which they adopted the culture and religions of the people they conquered. They willingly converted to Islam or Buddhism in places where the majority of the population followed these religions.

In Islamic tradition, the Caliph is the legitimate ruler of the entire political, religious, and social community of Islamic people. Caliphs exist in both the Sunni and Shiite tradition, however these two denominations disagree on how the Caliph should be chosen and who he is. The Caliph is said to govern the Ummah, or the community of Islamic worshippers in the world.

The Tang Dynasty ruled in China from 618 to 907 CE (not including the brief interruption of the reign of the Empress Wu Zetian). It succeeded the Sui Dynasty and was followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of Chinese history. During the initial rule of the Tang Dynasty agricultural land was redistributed and Confucianism was encouraged. The Tang Dynasty was one of the most successful in Chinese history and reigned over a relative golden age in Chinese history. Chinese territory expanded significantly during the Tang Dynasty as the conscripted forces conquered vast swathes of territory in Central Asia.