In France, under the Old Regime (before the French Revolution), France was partially governed by the Estates-General. This was a form of political representation where various classes of people, or “estates,” were represented as a group. The First Estate was composed of clergymen; the Second Estate was made up of noblemen; and the Third Estate was comprised of the common man (everyone else).

Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Maria Theresa of Austria are three well-known examples of "enlightened despots." During the Enlightenment era, many absolute rulers came to embrace the practices and ideals of the Enlightenment thinkers. These rulers did little to encourage democracy or constitutionalism in their countries and still ruled in an autocratic style, but they were more likely to favor freedom of speech, along with freedom of religion and expression.

Throughout the Enlightenment period, it was common for young aristocratic men, particularly from Britain or Northern Europe, to undergo a "Grand Tour." This involved a months-long trip around the major sites of Enlightenment Europe. It was particularly focused on Italy and France. The purpose was to gain a greater understanding of art history and the history of western civilization. The only one of these statements that is not true is that it only became practical with the advent of the railroad—the railroad merely made it easier; people had been doing it since the early-seventeenth century. 

The War of Austrian Succession was fought in the 1740s over the issue of whether Maria Theresa was fit to inherit the Hapsburg throne of Austria from her father. Those contending that she was unfit were doing so on the premise that, as a woman, she was ineligible for the throne. The war ended with Maria Theresa victorious and sitting on the throne of Austria, which she would continue to do for the next several decades.

Under Catholic tradition, it is forbidden to lend money with the expectation that the loanee will then pay back the money plus interest. This is called usury. When Catholicism was the dominant expression of Christianity in Europe, any type of business venture (as we understand them now) was largely impossible, or relied on one incredibly wealthy patron making himself slightly more wealthy. The rise of Protestantism and the decline of Catholicism allowed many of the Northern European countries in particular to start funding colonizing missions, explorations, and long-distance trading ventures through lending money. This radically altered the direction of European history and inspired the commercial and banking revolutions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

During the Enlightenment period, political philosophy generally fell under two headings: conservatism and liberalism. Liberals favored rapid, progressive change, often brought about through revolution or bloodshed, and they desired an immediate end to autocracy and absolute monarchy. Conservatives, on the other hand, favored slower, more gradual change to society and feared chaos and disorder more than they feared autocracy.

St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 as a major port city and capital for the Russian Empire. Its name was later changed to Leningrad with the rise of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century.

Under Napoleon III, France and the Ottoman Empire made a special agreement, part of which allowed Catholics, particularly French Catholics, free access to the parts of the Holy Land around Jerusalem controlled by the Ottomans. Russia objected to the exclusion of Orthodox Christians by the Ottomans, and in due course the Ottomans reversed course. The open conflict erupted in 1854 and saw the Russian Empire take on an Allied force of British, French, and Ottoman troops. The result was a decisive Allied victory.

The Crimean War was fought in the 1850s between the French and British on one side and the Russians on the other. The British and French had long feared Russian expansion into the Mediterranean, and when Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire, British and French foreign policy necessitated a declaration of war. The war ended in victory for the British and French forces. The Crimean War is also notable for the work of Florence Nightingale and the subsequent changes in medical practice brought about by her efforts.

During the nineteenth century, following the Napoleonic Wars, British foreign policy became much less focused on competition with France and the other Western European nations, and much more concerned with limiting the expansion of the Russian empire. The British and French feared the growth of Russian influence in the Middle East and the Mediterranean and so sought to sure up the failing Ottoman Empire. The most notable incident derived from the British policy of containment was the Crimean War, fought between France and Britain on one side and Russia on the other.