The commercial revolution began in Amsterdam, but it would never have been able to do so without the Thirty Years’ War and the Peace of Westphalia, which ended that war. The Netherlands, previously under Spanish dominion, became independent; the country was then free to follow its own path of Protestantism and vigorous free market capitalism.

Theodor Herzl is most famous for his advocation of a Jewish homeland in an essay called Der Judenstaat. In it, he argued that the only way to end European persecution of Jews was to give the Jewish people their own homeland. This was the beginning of the Zionist movement that was given greater emphasis by the Balfour Proclamation in 1917 and that resulted in the establishment of Israel in 1948.

The Magna Carta is often referenced as the beginning of British, and therefore American, democracy. It created a Great Council of Lords and Barons with whom the King had to consult before making any significant decisions. This is clearly hardly democracy— it's more like an oligarchy—but this council would one day evolve into the British Parliament, from which true democracy would eventually flow. The signing of the Magna Carta is also significant in that it may be seen as the very beginning of the English nation-state. It is a foundational legend upon which the British government and people can trace their shared history and legitimacy back eight hundred years.

Maximilian I was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 to 1519. He is one of the most prominent Holy Roman Emperors from this time period and is notable for his attempts to unify the German-speaking people under one ruler. He failed in this attempt because the German speaking people were divided into too many different princedoms and small political entities. German unification would not be completed until 1871.

The battles of Tours and Lepanto were not fought by English forces, so we can rule these two answer choices out immediately. The battles of the Somme and Trafalgar were fought during World War One and the Napoleonic Wars, respectively, and so came too late to be part of the rise of English nationalism. The Battle of Agincourt, which took place during the Hundred Years’ War with the French, happened in the fifteenth century and so came at the perfect time to be incorporated into the rise of nationalism in England. It helped solidify what it meant to be English, as opposed to French, and led to the rise of self-identifying nationalist ethnicity among the English people.

Realpolitik was the primary political philosophy of the German unifying leader Otto von Bismarck. Realpolitik is based around a pragmatic application of political power, or political power wielded outside of ideological, religious, or ethnic motivation.

Many European nation-states coalesced around ethnic identity and shared cultural heritage. The Spanish nation-state coalesced around both of these, but also around the religion of Catholicism. Protestantism was almost non-existent in Spain and those who adhered to either Islam or Judaism were either banished or forcefully converted to Catholicism during the formation of the Spanish nation-state.

The Divine Comedy was written by the famous Italian writer Dante in the fourteenth century. It tells the tale of the salvation of the human soul and was wildly popular as it was written in the vernacular language. 

Secularism emerged as a political and social philosophy in the Renaissance period of European history and grew in influence during the Enlightenment and Industrial eras. It advocates primarily for the separation of the political and the religious (for example, no laws based on religious codes, etc.). It also contends that life on Earth is "more important" than the afterlife and that all religious beliefs should be tolerated, although these tenets of secularism were added by degrees as the centuries went by.

These works of Dante and Chaucer were both written in the vernacular languages of the countries they lived in. Vernacular means locally spoken, as opposed to how most work was published in this time period, in Latin. Dante and Chaucer helped accelerate the movement away from the elite language of Latin towards the popular languages of English, Italian, French, and so on.