All of these symptoms are associated with a higher risk of developing diabetes. Turner syndrome is also know as XO, where the individual is a female, and is monosomic for the X-chromosome. Individuals with Turner syndrome are also at higher risk of heart disease, and hypothyroidism, and they are sterile. Down's syndrome is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21, and involves elevated risks for mental impairment, heart disease, and certain cancers. Kleinfelter's syndrome patients have the XXY-chromosomal expression. They are at a higher risk than the classically male or female public for osteoporosis, hypogonadism, and cardiovascular disorders.

80% of cases of Cushing's disease are caused by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting adenomas of the anterior pituitary. High ACTH ends up causes adrenal hyperplasia, which leads to secretion of extra cortisol. Corticosteroid use is the leading cause of Cushing syndrome, rather than Cushing's disease.

Insulin activates sodium-potassium ATPase in skeletal muscle cells causing an influx of potassium. Under certain circumstances, an incorrectly administered injection of insulin may kill patients due to its ability to acutely suppress plasma potassium concentrations.

GLUT-2 is the primary carrier for glucose transport into pancreatic beta cells. It does not depend on insulin to function. It thus aids the pancreatic beta cells sense glucose levels in the blood, which are then triggered to release insulin. GLUT-4 is active primarily in adipose and muscle tissue. 

The first onset of diabetes is generally marked by the following three signs: polyuria - frequent urination, polydypsia - increased thirst & fluid intake, and polyphagia - increased appetite. In children with type 1 diabetes, enuresis (involuntary urination) is often the first sign noticed by parents, along with unexplained weight loss and recurrent infections.

Smokers have higher levels of the chemical thiocyanate, a degradation product of cyanide in tobacco smoke, which can block iodine uptake by the thyroid. A high oxalate diet is associated with kidney stones, asbestos exposure is associated with mesothelioma, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) use, while associated with several gastric disorders, has not been shown to have a significant effect on thyroid function. 

Primary hyperparathyroidism is most commonly due to a parathyroid adenoma. 80-90% of cases of primary hyperparathyroidism are due to parathyroid adenoma. 10-15% cases are due to parathyroid hyperplasia, and parathyroid carcinoma accounts for 1-5% of all cases.

Renal failure is by far the most common cause of secondary hyperparathyroidism. If kidneys are unable to convert vitamin D to its active form, serum vitamin D levels will drop. Lower vitamin D levels reduce the absorption of calcium in the intestines and reduce the kidneys' ability to resorb calcium from the urine. In addition, if the kidneys are unable to adequately excrete phosphate, calcium phosphate forms, which further lowers free calcium levels in the blood. Poor nutrition is not a common cause of secondary hyperparathyroidism, though low vitamin D levels due to malabsorption can be a contributing factor. Pituitary tumors can be seen with hyperparathyroidism when part of multiple endocrine neoplasia type I, but this is not as common as renal failure. Bone cancers are more often associated with elevated calcium levels, resulting in low or undetectable parathyroid hormone levels. 

Hypothyroidism usually involves weight gain so a lower calorie diet with frequent small meals are recommended. High fiber, low calorie diets and stool softeners will help to alleviate these symptoms. Antiglycemics and hemoglobin A1C tests are indicated for diabetics.

Tetany is a complication due to hypocalcemia which can occur if the parathyroid glands which control calcium balance are accidentaly injured during thyroidectomy. Tetany is associated with nerve excitability and sustained muscle contractions, or spasms. Tetanus, bone pain, and oliguria are not associated with complications of a thyroidectomy. Goiter is a manifestation of an overactive thyroid.