The key point in this sentence is that Henry of Ghent believed that a response must be made to Aquinas. Therefore, he almost certainly wished to prove him wrong and show the reasons for Aquinas's errors. When we "refute" someone, this is just what we do, proving why a given position is incorrect. This is a far better option than the other ones offered here, for the others do not express this desire to show the wrongness of Aquinas's positions.

If you were to fill in the blank in this sentence, it would be appropriate to say that William had to "set aside" a certain amount of money. To "allocate" something is to do just this. It is related to the word "allot," meaning to set aside a particular share of something.

This sentence indicates that Odo was in some manner sent away from his homeland, being forced to live elsewhere. Now, while he may be described as being "forsaken" or "abandoned," such options are not exactly what is needed. Instead, we need a word that expresses the action of sending someone out of a given locale. For this, the word "exile" is by far the best, for it means just this, especially when someone is sent out from his or her homeland.

The general idea of this sentence is that Edward's brother's motives, being "unknown" on the whole, could at best be guessed. Thus, it could be said that the most definitive action that Edward could take would be to "speculate" on these matters. When someone "speculates" he or she is guessing without having the best evidence. For this reason, the word is used to describe people who try to guess stock market values in the hopes of making money—they make "speculations" in order to try to guess the stocks that will gain in value.

The idea of this sentence is that the building plans worked toward their completion very "quickly." Now, this might seem to mean that they "evolved" or even "developed" quickly; however, the word "progressed" is much better than these options. Something can "evolve" quickly by simply changing (and, in a way, the same can be said of things that develop quickly). To make "progress" is to go forward along a given path. Thus, to make progress on a project is to advance toward its completion. 

The sentence only indicates one action being done by "the bandits," namely the taking of the "goods and crops" from the locals. Although this is likely being done with violence, we should not go further than is merited by the parts of the sentence that have been given. Thus, the only option that is acceptable is "plundering," which means stealing or pillaging. (The word "besieging" really is not at all proper, for bandits generally do not develop a full siege on a town.)

For this sentence, it is important to pay attention to the connotation of its expression. It remarks that the man is acting as if he had no responsibilities for his "family" or "job." This does not seem like a positive thing, so the judgment of this man is likely to be negative. His choice is definitely not one that is helping to build his character or aid in his progress as a human being. Thus, in contrast to any such "progress," the word "regress" is an excellent option. It comes from roots literally meaning to go backward. The general implication with regression is that the regressing person is returning to a less developed state of character or life.

The key thing to pay attention to in this sentence is the fact that Thomas uses his employees' "feelings of guilt to his advantage." Therefore, it is not most correct to say that he berates or is nasty to them. Instead, he is controlling them in an unfair way, trying to secretly get more work out of them by using their feelings of guilt. Thus, it is best to say that he is manipulating them, not "berating" nor "castigating" them.

Because the scientist is trying to disprove the existence of the monster it means he is trying to disprove or "debunk" the myth. The word "debunk" is used to describe a situation where someone is trying to prove something is false. To "enhance" and "augment" both mean to make bigger and better; "supplant" means replace; "fortify" means protect against. 

It is clear from context that the correct answer must mean something like to leave in a will, to give to someone after you have died. The correct answer is therefore "bequeath." To provide further help, "prostrate" means lying flat on the ground; "reverberate" means echo; "extricate" means free from; "stupefy" means confuse and amaze.