The "penumbra" cast by an object is the outer part of its shadow. The word comes from the Latin “umbra,” which means shade or even ghost, as well as from the verb “umbrare,” meaning, to cast a shadow on or to shade. Related words in English are not only “umbrella” and “umbrage” but also “somber” and “sombrero” (really as a Spanish import, of course).

In order to be trusted by a firm, one would have to show great devotion to the firm—particularly in the case of such a worker that is perhaps not the most efficient. Such devotion could be termed “fidelity,” a word derived from the Latin "fides" (and related words), meaning trust or (particularly later) faith. A related English word is "fideism" (the religious belief that knowledge relies solely on faith), and the motto of the U.S. Marines, “semper fidelis,” comes directly from the Latin for always faithful.

Although a number of options might be tempting, the emphasis of the sentence is merely on the fact that the children will repeat the actions of their parents. It does not necessarily say anything about multiple trials or the mode by which the learning occurs. In general, “mimesis” means imitation. It is derived from Greek roots that are likewise reflected in words like “mime” and “mimic.”

Both the event, falling down stairs, and the result of it, wanting not to go to school, indicate the boy was extremely embarrassed. The correct answer choice, therefore, will have a meaning of shame or embarrassment, which is the definition of "abasement." "Indifference" and "ambivalence" both have a sense of a lack of caring, while "pride" and "celebration" are both too positive.

The contextual clues tell us that the feelings of the away fans are going to be the opposite of the home fans, and the home fans "adore" the team. "Contempt" is synonymous with hatred, so it is the best choice.

The definition of "benefactor" is someone who gives a gift, often a sum of money. This is what happened to the orphan in this sentence, so "benefactor" is the correct answer.

"Anachronism" means the representation of something as existing or happening in the wrong time period, and a cell phone in the eighteenth century is clearly misplaced. To break the word down into its roots, "ana" means wrong and "chronos" means time, so this word literally means "wrong time."

In order to succeed in their endeavors, students must be determined. Thus, a student must have tenacity or perseverance.

An anthology is a published collection of shorter pieces of writing, such as essays. While obituaries and broadsides are also published written works, they do not contain a collection of essays. 

Banter is correct because it means to speak playfully or wittily. Joking and teasing (especially when it is quick and witty) can be described as banter.