The Battle of Talas was fought between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty in 751 CE. Prior to the battle, Chinese forces had been spreading rapidly westward and facing little opposition; however, at the Battle of Talas, they were defeated by the Arab forces, and Chinese expansion was halted for several centuries. The battle is considered important for transferring control over the “Silk Road” from Chinese to Arab hands and for turning back the massive forces of the Tang Dynasty. Also, it is sometimes said that Arabs learned the art of paper making from the Chinese prisoners they captured in the battle, thus spreading paper-making technology to the Middle East and eventually Europe.

In 1096 C.E., Pope Urban launched the First Crusade in order to take back control of Jerusalem from the Seljuk Turks. The many crusades that followed all professed a desire for Christian control of the Holy Land, a place that both Christians and Muslims saw as an essential part of their religious identity. Although a Latin Empire was established in Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, this development ultimately distracted from the crusaders' goals and deepened the schism between the two Christian churches. While the most positive result of the Crusades was arguably the European rediscovery of ancient ideas, this development was also unintended.

Temujin is the given name of the warrior ruler Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes in the twelfth century under his rule and soon led his horde on a series of conquests across Eurasia. In the generations immediately following his death the Mongols conquered the largest land empire ever seen in human history - stretching from China all the way to the gates of Vienna, and including much of northern India and the Middle East. 

Pope Urban II was Pope from 1088 to 1099. He is most frequently remembered for initiating the First Crusade, which led to the temporary conquest of Jerusalem by the forces of Christendom and led to centuries of conflict between Christian Europe and the Islamic world.

The Battle of Tours was fought in modern-day France in the eighth century between the forces of Christian Europe, led by Charles Martel, King of the Franks and the forces of Islam. Since its formation a century earlier, Islam had spread rapidly throughout the Middle East and North Africa. By the early eighth century much of the Iberian peninsula was under Arab control and it seemed as if soon all of Western Europe would succumb to the Islamic invasion. Victory at the Battle of Tours stopped the tide of Arab conquest and preserved the rule of Christendom in Western Europe.

William the Conqueror was a Duke of Normandy when he invaded England in 1066. He defeated the recently crowned British King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, and in so doing took control of the Kingdom of England. This period of time is known in English history as the Norman conquest. It had dramatic consequences in English history, including the adoption of European style feudalism in Britain.

The Hundred Years’ War, with its forty-four nonconsecutive years of actual combat, finally came to an end in 1453, with a decisive French victory. France’s military position had been strengthened with a newly-formed alliance with Burgundy, allowing the French forces to concentrate all their military might on ousting the English. Eventually, the English army could hold on no longer, and with the declaration of French victory, England was forced to relinquish nearly all the French territory that it had once held under King Edward III. Only the coastal region of Calais was left under English control. Due to the overwhelming expenses run up by the war, both England and France raised taxes upon their respective populations, with the greatest burden falling, once again, upon the already struggling peasant class. The French king took special advantage of these circumstances and moved to shore up the monarchy’s position of dominance over the nobility, so that the French crown exercised more and more political, social, and even economic control.

Mahmud of Ghazni ruled over an empire in modern-day Afghanistan in the eleventh century. His empire grew immensely wealthy from the riches his armies plundered from northern India. He conquered or weakened many northern India states and paved the way for the Islamic conquest of India a few centuries later.

The War of the Roses was one of many bloody civil wars fought over the issue of succession. After the death of Henry V in 1422, the lack of a strong Lancaster heir (the crowned successor, Henry VI, was an infant) led to a conflicting claim by Richard, Duke of York. After some initial successes by the House of York, the Lancasters eventually won out and reclaimed the throne. 

All of these statements about the Song Dynasty are accurate, except that it began with the overthrow of Mongol invaders. The Song Dynasty came to power in 960 CE and brought to an end the period of Chinese history known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It reigned until 1279 CE when it was overthrown by Mongol invaders (who established the Yuan Dynasty). The Song Dynasty featured significant military conquest and territorial growth, a rapidly growing population, and an abundant food surplus. The Song, in reaction to a severe financial crisis, were the first to issue paper bank notes. Gunpowder and the compass were both also invented during the Song Dynasty.