Jeff's knowledge that the amount of juice stayed constant is evidence that he understands conservation. According to Piaget, a child's understanding of the conservation concept is characteristic of the concrete operational stage, as this stage marks the start of logical and operational thinking. 

Top-down processing involves processing information by utilizing prior knowledge and conceptual knowledge of the whole. This allows the perception of how the smaller pieces make the whole. Timmy sees the whole, assembled structure of the engine in order to understand the workings of the spark plugs. Had he looked a spark plug, then attempted to figure out the workings of the engine, that would have been bottom-up processing.

Inattentional blindness describes the ability of the human mind to block out all but a single, deeply focused on piece of sensory input. The sudden sensory input of the dog in front of his car caused Sam's focus to narrow so significantly that he was inattentonally blind to the car next to him. The cocktail party effect, on the other hand, describes a person's ability to single out one voice among many in a room, and even to shift that focus, picking individual sounds on which to focus in a noisy room.

Inattentional blindness is failing to see objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. An example of this would be going through a red light while driving because your attention was focused on texting. 

Gestalt psychology emphasizes "the whole" because humans tend to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Gestalt therapy focuses on individual responsibility. Gradient is not a principle of Gestalt psychology, while all of the other answer choices convey how humans process information in wholes. 

Inattentional blindness occurs when someone is hyper-focused on one stimulus and unable to take in other information. Rick was so focused on where the ball was and he missed another player making a seemingly blatant foul. The blind spot is the point where the optic nerve exits the eye from the retina to the brain. Optical illusion is an umbrella term that can refer to many different principles of perceptual organization. The Phi Phenomenon is the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession (much like a cartoon flip book). 

In this example Robin is making use of chunking, which improves short-term memory by grouping items together. For example, if Robin had to memorize a string of numbers (e.g. 91769512), then she could chunk together into four number strings reminiscent of years (e.g. "1976" and "1925"). A mnemonic device is a string of words or an acronym to help recall information. For example, ROYGBIV helps some people remember the colors of the rainbow. The peg-word system is another memory strategy that involves memorizing a list of words by associating the words with specific numbers that are "pegged" onto an imaginary board, such as "two" and "shoe." The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember the first item on a list better than later items. Echoic memory is a form of sensory memory that can be retained for 3 to 4 seconds. Last, the primacy effect and echoic memory do not refer to memorization strategies.